Minister, Ministry and Cabinet

Minister, Ministry and Cabinet

Minister, in international relations, is a diplomatic agent who represents his or her country in a foreign land. Ministers are appointed by the head of their coun­try and rank below ambassadors. Most countries ex­change ambassadors, rather than ministers. The title of minister may be used to designate high-ranking diplo­mats below the ambassadorial level. In some countries, the name minister is also given to high administrative of­ficers who make up the cabinet or executive body (see Cabinet). See also Ambassador; Diplomacy; Ministry. Minister, in religion, is one who serves. The word minister is a Latin term meaning servant. Especially in Protestantism, a minister is an ordained member of the clergy who usually acts as pastor of a congregation. In addition to conducting worship services, an ordained minister usually administers the sacraments, preaches, and assumes responsibility for the pastoral care of the congregation. Lay ministers, who are not ordained, may assist at worship services. For example, they often read parts of the liturgy and lessons and help distribute Com­munion. In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and An­glican churches, priests fill the role of ordained minis­ters.

Ministry, in government, is a body of executive offi­cers who advise the head of a country or directly con­trol a nation's affairs. Often, the members are members of parliament and heads of executive departments.

Ministries are part of the governmental setup of countries that have a parliamentary form of government. The ministry of Great Britain has furnished the model for all nations using the parliamentary system.

The British ministry consists of the prime minister and a number of other officers known as the ministers. The monarch appoints the prime minister, usually selecting the leader of the party in control of the House of Com­mons. The monarch's selections of the other ministers are based on the recommendations of the prime minis­ter. British ministers are members of Parliament and are divided into cabinet ministers and ministers not in the cabinet. Cabinet ministers vary from cabinet to cabinet. Major bills are introduced by ministers.

The British ministry represents the political party or parties that control the House of Commons. When it can no longer get parliamentary support, the ministry re­signs. See also Cabinet (The cabinet system of government): Prime minister.

Cabinet

Take note: Prime Minister

Prime minister is the head of the government in the United Kingdom and many other countries. The head of the state—the king or queen of a monarchy or the presi­dent of a republic—appoints the prime minister. In most countries, the head of state can appoint only the leader of the majority party in the legislature or of a coalition. The prime minister and the Cabinet are responsible to the legislature. This means that the prime minister and the Cabinet should resign if the legislature rejects a major item of their policy. This system is known as the cabinet system of government (see Cabinet).

In the United Kingdom, the prime minister is usually the leader of the party that wins an election. Usually, the monarch must abide by the prime minister’s advice. The prime minister chooses the members of the Cabinet but cannot easily ignore other important members of his or her party.

The Cabinet must agree on most government actions, but the prime minister has certain rights alone, such as asking the monarch to dissolve parliament and call an election.

Cabinet government developed in Britain during the reign of George I (1714-1727). George I (1714-1727). George I took little interest in the government. Sir Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, came to be known as the prime (first) minister. The title did not become official until 1905. The British prime minister still holds the earlier title.

Under the French constitution of 1958, the head of the French Cabinet is  now also called premier (prime minister). The premier shares power with the president of France. See President.

 Majority rule: Majority rule is a principle of democratic government t hat requires a decision to be approved by a majority of voters. A majority consists of at least one more than half the votes cast. Majority rule may be used to elect officials or decide a policy. A majority differs from a plurality. A candidate wit h a plurality receives more votes than any other candidate, but not necessarily a majority. In an election in which 10 people vote, a majority would require at least six voters. A plurality might be as few as two votes. See also Democracy (Majority rule and minority rights).

Segregation: It is the separation of groups of people by custom or by law. It is often based on differences of eth­nic origin, religion, wealth, or culture. Some people consider such differences highly important.

Segregation can occur in almost any area of life. It is particularly evident in housing, education, and employ­ment, and in the use of eating, sleeping, transportation, and other public facilities. Almost all systems of segre­gation discourage marriage between people of different racial, religious, or social groups. In the United States, for example, many states outlawed marriage between blacks and whites. But in 1967, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled such laws unconstitutional. Segrega­tion almost always involves some kind of discrimination by one group against another. The term discrimination refers to actions or practices by members of a dominant group that limit the opportunities of a less powerful group.

The term desegregation refers to the process of end­ing group separation. During the course of desegrega­tion, two or more separated groups may begin to act to­ward each other in new, friendlier ways. This new relationship between the groups is called integration.

Causes and effects of segregation

Segregation is usually the result of a long period of group conflict, with one group having more power and influence than another group. The dominant (more pow­erful) group sometimes uses force, law, or custom to segregate a subordinate (less powerful) group. In time, segregation comes to be considered right, especially by the dominant group. Violations of the accepted code of segregation are considered wrong. People who break the code are believed to deserve stern punishment.

Further support for segregation comes from hostile attitudes and feelings between groups. The dominant group typically believes its members are born with su­perior intelligence, talents, and moral standards. Social scientists call these false or exaggerated beliefs stereo­types. The dominant group uses stereotypes to justify its mistreatment of the subordinate group. Meanwhile, the subordinate group develops fear and dislike toward the dominant group.

Segregation involves favoured treatment for the dom­inant group. Members of this group are expected to have—and usually do have—the best education, homes, jobs, and public services. As a result, their beliefs of su­periority are strengthened. They do not consider the system unfair but regard it as the proper way for society to distribute its resources. Likewise, the subordinate group may have a sense of inferiority that is reinforced

by a system that denies it the social, political, and eco­nomic benefits enjoyed by others.

Examples of segregation

In the United States, segregation of ethnic groups in its modern form started in the late 1800's. But slavery ex­isted for more than 200 years before the Civil War (1861- 1865). After the war, the freed blacks suffered wide­spread discrimination, especially in the South.

Jim Crow laws, first developed in a few Northern states in the early 1800's, were adopted by many South­ern states in the late 1800s. These segregation laws re­quired that whites and blacks use separate public facili­ties. No detail was too small. At one time, for example, Oklahoma required that whites and blacks use separate telephone booths. Such de jure (by law) ethnic segrega­tion in America was strengthened by several decisions of the Supreme Court.

Starting in the 1930's, blacks have gained increasing prominence in national politics and a fairer hearing in federal courts. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled against de jure segregation in state schools.

In the 1960's, attention shifted to de facto segregation—that is, segregation in fact. This type of separation has developed more by custom than by law. Although many laws that support de jure segregation were declared unconstitutional, de facto ethnic segrega­tion increased during the mid-1900"s.

In American cities, blacks were as segregated in housing in the 1980's as they were in the 1930's.

De facto segregation was a basic cause of the race riots that swept American cities in the 1960's and early 1980's. The riots represented, among other things, a mix­ture of desperation and defiance.

Segregation has existed for many centuries. During the Middle Ages, from the 400's to the 1500's, segrega­tion was especially directed against European Jews. In many countries, Jews had to live in city ghettos. Laws prohibited them from owning land, joining labour guilds, or practising medicine or law. As a result, these Jews could earn a living only in occupations avoided by Christians, including moneylending and tax collecting.

In time, people came to think of Jews as a group that dealt dishonestly in trade. Jews were falsely blamed for all types of misfortunes, even the plagues which swept Europe during the Middle Ages.

Segregation also can occur along religious lines, with sacred approval. An example is the complex Hindu sys­tem of separation by castes (social classes created by an­cient religious laws) in India. For about 2,000 years, the many castes remained strictly separated in almost all areas of life. In 1948, the Indian government began a campaign against the caste system. Progress has been made, but segregation remains in many parts of India. See India (Religion).

In most countries, segregation and discrimination are based on national and ethnic differences. For example, Koreans living in Japan are typically segregated, discrim­inated against, and regarded as inferiors by the Japa­nese. For many years, South Africa had the world's most complete system of ethnic segregation. The South Afri­can government, controlled by whites, followed a policy called apartheid, which aimed to subordinate black Afri­cans in every walk of life (see Apartheid).

Since the early 1940's, segregation has declined steadily in many parts of the world. Several forces have led to increased contact across class, cultural, ethnic, re­ligious, and national lines. These forces include the end of colonialism, the expansion of literacy, the rapid growth of cities, and protest movements by subordi­nated peoples. Other forces have been mass migrations and the growth of rapid transportation systems and of mass communication. Related articles: Apartheid, Jews, Caste, Minority group, Civil rights, Racism, Indian, American, and South Africa.