Facts in brief about Rome
Population: 2,775,250.
Area: 1588 km2.
Climate: Average temperature— January 7 °C; July, 26
°C. Average annual precipitation (rainfall, melted
snow, and other forms of moisture!—97 cm. For the monthly weather in Rome, see Italy (Climate).
Government: Chief executive—
mayor (4-year term). Legislature— 80-member City Council (4-year terms).
Founded: 753 B.C (according to legend).
Rome is the capital of Italy and one of the world's great historic
cities. It has been an important centre of civilization for over 2,000 years.
Because of its long history, Rome is called the Eternal City. It
is also one of the world's most beautiful cities, its historic centre standing
on seven hills. Its ancient monuments and magnificent churches and palaces
stand as reminders of Rome's past glory. Gleaming new buildings are a sign of
its modern day importance.
Rome
ruled the ancient Western world as the capital of the mighty Roman Empire. For
hundreds of years, Rome was the supreme power of Europe, northern Africa, and
western Asia. Ancient Rome's influence can still be seen today in such fields
as architecture, government, language, and law.
As
the home of the popes, whose palace is in the independent Vatican City, Rome
also became the centre of the Roman Catholic Church. During the 1500's and
160ffs, the popes brought a new splendour to Rome. They hired great artists who
gave the city beautiful buildings and priceless works of art. Thousands of visitors
come every year from all parts of the world to enjoy
these
masterpieces, and to see the ruins of ancient Rome.
Visitors
also enjoy the colourful life of sunny Rome. They stroll through the city's
fashionable shops and open-air markets, or they take a ride in horse-drawn carriages.
Like the Romans, visitors enjoy relaxing at pavement cafes or in the many
beautiful squares. The people of Rome are friendly and proud of their city.
They are happy to help strangers find their way or select the most delicious
foods in restaurants, or just to chat.
Rome
lies on both banks of the Tiber River in central Italy, 16 kilometres east of
the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city is on about 20 hills, but its outskirts have some
wide stretches of flat ground. These hills include the famous seven hills on
which ancient Rome was built —the Aventine, Caelian, Capitoline, Esquiline,
Palatine, Quirinal, and Viminal hills.
Today,
the ruins of ancient buildings cover most of the Aventine, Caelian, and
Palatine hills. The Palatine also has a modern public park. Crowded commercial
districts spread over the Esquiline and Viminal hills. The Italian presidential
palace and some of Rome's government buildings stand on the Quirinal, the
tallest of the seven hills. The streets of ancient Rome extended from the
Capitoline, a centre of Roman life. Today, this hill has famous art museums,
the City Council building, and a square designed by Michelangelo, the great
Renaissance artist.
Throughout
the city are many beautiful squares connected by busy streets. In the heart of
Rome is the Piazza Colonna (Colonna Square). Banks, hotels, luxury
shops, office buildings, restaurants, and theatres make it the busiest place in
the city. Rome's main street, the Via del Corso (Way
of the Course), runs 1.6 kilometres through the Piazza Colonna and links two
other squares to the north and south. The Via del Corso got
its name because it was used as a horse-racing course in the Middle Ages.
Vatican
City, the administrative and spiritual centre of the Roman Catholic Church,
lies in northwestern Rome. The Vatican, as it is sometimes called, is the
smallest independent state in the world. It covers only 43.99 hectares, or
about 0.4 square kilometre. See Vatican City.
Rome
is also one of the world's most important art centres. Actors, musicians,
painters, sculptors, and writers take part in the city's busy cultural life.
Parks and gardens. Romans enjoy the city's
many public parks and gardens in the grounds of magnificent old villas
(large estates). The villas were once owned by wealthy fapiilies. The great
Villa Borghese, which was opened to the public in 1902, is the finest of these
parks. Its hills, meadows, and woods seem like natural countryside. It also
has a large zoo.
Many
of Rome's tourists visit the Villa Ada, the old home of Italian kings. The
Villa Glori, a park honouring Italy's war dead, is covered with pine trees. The
Villa Sciarra has famous fountains and rare plants. Cardens on top of the
janiculum Hill are especially popular with children.
Music and theatre. The National Academy of
St. Cecilia has one of Rome's leading symphony orchestras. Rome's orchestras
also include the Rome Philharmonic and the Radiotelevisione Italiana. The
world's oldest academies of music are in Rome.
Romans,
like most Italians, enjoy opera. The Opera House offers performances from
December to June. Rome's many theatres offer plays and musical comedies,
including productions by companies from other countries.
Museuans and art galleries. Countless visitors come
to see Rome's priceless art collections. Many of the finest paintings and
statues are displayed in the Vatican Palace. They include masterpieces by such
famous artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Some of
Michelangelo's greatest paintings decorate the
ceiling
and front wall of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel. See Michelangelo (pictures).
The
oldest art collection in Rome, begun in 1471, is in the Capitoline Museum. It
includes many fine sculptures of ancient Rome. The National Museum of the Villa
Giulia has a collection of art from central Italy dating from pre-Roman times.
Greek ane( Roman sculptures, and articles from ancient civilizations, are
exhibited in the National Roman Museum. The Borghese Collection in the Villa
Borghese includes works by almost every master of the Renaissance. The national
Gallery of Modern Art has masterpieces that were produced chiefly in the 1800's
and 1900's.
Churches, palaces, and fountains. Saint
Peter's Church (also called Saint Peter's Basilica), in Vatican City is
Europe's largest Christian church. It is an outstanding example of Renaissance
architecture. Michelangelo helped design the church during the 1500's. Many famous
art masterpieces can be seen inside (see Saint Peter's Church).
Other well-known churches of Rome also date from the Renaissance,
and from earlier and later periods.
The
most famous of Rome's many palaces is the Venezia Palace, built during the
mid-1400's. The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini established his office there
in the Fascist period of the 1920's and 1930's. The palace now houses an art
museum. T^e Madama Palace, once owned by the powerful Medici family, has been
the seat of the Italian Senate since 1871. The Quirinal Palace is the Italian
president's official residence. It was the home of popes until 1870 and of kings
of Italy from 1871 until 1946.
Rome
has many magnificent fountains that are considered great works of art. The
Trevi Fountain, which was completed in 1762, is the most popular with visitors
from other countries. There is a legend that says that visitors who throw
coins into this fountain will someday return to the city.
Schools. The University of Rome was founded in 1303
by Pope Boniface VIII. it has 180,000 students and is Italy's largest
university (see Rome, University of). Various religious societies of the Roman
Catholic Church operate a number of schools in Vatican City. There, students
from many countries attend seminaries to become priests, or take university
graduate studies. Some seminaries have been established for students from one
country only. For example, the North American College has graduated about 1,800
American priests since it was founded in 1859.
Roman
children must attend school between the ages of 6 and 14, which takes them
through junior secondary school. They may also attend state schools at the next
level of education. These schools include secondary schools and schools of fine
arts, teacher training, and technical job training. Students pay small fees to
attend all these higher-level schools. A number of independent schools are
operated by religious groups.
The
Vatican Library, established in the 1400's, is one of the most important
libraries in the world. It owns many old Latin manuscripts (see Vatican
Library). Rome also has nine public libraries with a total of about three
million books. Other libraries are operated by Roman Catholic orders.
Sports. Soccer is Rome's most popular sport. Huge crowds attend club and
international soccer matches in the Olympic Stadium. Horse shows are held in
the Piazza di Siena (Siena Square) and the
Capannelle and Tor di Valle Hippodromes. Other popular sports include
basketball, boxing, and tennis.
The Baths of Caracalla were public baths
dating from the A.D. 200's. Visitors enjoy the site's fine architecture.
Economy.
Rome is not a heavily industrialized city. Most Romans earn their living in
nonindustrial jobs, such as those in commerce and government. Many Romans work
in restaurants and in the building trades. Tourism also provides a large part
of the city's income. Only about a fifth of the workers in Rome are employed in
industry. The city's factories produce clothing and textiles, processed foods,
and other products. Most of the factories in Rome are located in the
northwestern part of the city.
Film
production is an important part of Rome's economy. The city is one of the film
capitals of the world.
Film
companies of Italy and other countries have produced many famous films in
Rome's studios and streets.
Rome
is a major transportation centre of Italy. Railways and roads connect Rome
with cities in most parts of the country. Airlines link the city with the rest
of Italy and other parts of the world. Rome's central railway station is one
of the largest and most beautiful stations in the world. The Metropolitana,
Rome's underground system, runs southwest from the railway station to the port
of Ostia. Buses, trams, taxis, and trolleybuses also serve Rome. Beginning in
1973, all private vehicles were banned from part of the ancient section of the
city to reduce traffic jams and air and noise pollution.
Rome
has many daily newspapers, of which the most important are II Messaggero (The
Messenger), Tempo (The Time), and La Repubblica (The
Republic). The Vatican publishes the semi-official newspaper of the Roman
Catholic Church, L'Osservatore Romano (The Roman Observer).
Many other specialized newspapers are published in Rome, including Corriere dello
Sport (Sport Courier). Some papers are official dailies of political
parties. These include Avanti! (Forward!) of the
Socialist Party, Popolo (The People) of the Christian Democratic Party, and L'Unita
(Unity) of the Democratic Party of the Left. Italy's radio and television
system, Radiotelevisione Italiana, has its headquarters in Rome.
Government Rome is governed by a City Council
consisting of 80 members, who are elected every four years. The City Council
elects one member of its group as mayor. The council also elects 18 of its
members to the City Executive Committee. The mayor and the members of this
committee all serve four-year terms. The mayor heads the committee as well as
the general city administration. Fifteen departments direct the city's affairs,
including health, markets, public works, and transportation.
Remains
of the splendours of ancient Rome may be seen throughout the city, especially
in an area east of the Tiber River. Since the 1800's, the Italian government
has cleared the main sites of the ruins and surrounded them with trees and gardens.
Thousands of tourists visit these attractions yearly.
Forums. The centres of ancient Roman life were open market places called forums,
where public meetings were held. The Roman Forum, the most important one, was
the centre of Roman government. Many important buildings and monuments stood
there. Ruins in the Roman Forum include the Curia
(Senate House), the triumphal Arch of Septimius Severus, the Temple of Saturn,
and the Basilica Julia, an assembly hall.
Most
streets of ancient Rome were narrow and crooked, but a few were wide and
beautiful, with high arches and white marble buildings. The chief street, the Via Sacra
(Sacred Way), crossed the Roman Forum. Victorious emperors and generals
returning from war paraded over its lava pavement. See Forum, Roman; Rome,
Ancient (picture: A triumphal procession).
Many
Roman rulers built forums of their own. The ruins of five of these forums still
stand—those of Augustus, Julius Caesar, Nerva, Trajan, and Vespasian. Trajan's
Forum is the finest. Most of its buildings, including the Basilica Ulpia and
the Temple of Trajan, are in ruins. But Trajan's Column, 30 metres tall, is
almost whole. It has carvings of scenes from Trajan's wars. Nearby stand the
Markets of Trajan, a large semicircle of three-storeyed shops. One of the shops
has been rebuilt to show how it looked in ancient times. See Trajan.
The Colosseum, dedicated in A.D. 80,
is one of the chief landmarks of Rome. In this huge, half-ruined amphitheatre,
Romans watched trained fighters called gladiators
battle each other or fight wild animals. The audiences also saw persecuted
Christians killed by lions. See Colosseum.
Baths. Only wealthy Romans could afford to own private baths, but the
city had many public ones. During the time of the emperors, the public baths
became luxurious meeting places. They looked like great squareshaped swimming
pools, and were surrounded by gardens, columned marble porches, and libraries.
The bath buildings had facilities for warm and cold baths, steam baths, and massage.
The
most splendid remains of baths are those of Cara- calla and of Diocletian. The
Baths of Caracalla, which date from the early A.D. 200's, are especially
impressive. They were decorated with precious marble, statues, and mosaics
(pictures formed out of multiple pieces of coloured glass, stone, or wood).
Few of these decorations remain. But many tourists visit the ruins each year
for their history and architecture. The Baths of Diocletian, completed in the
early A.D. 300's, were the largest of all Roman baths. They could serve 3,000
people at a time. Most of the site has beerl built over, but some rooms can
still be seen.
The catacombs were systems of underground passages and
rooms used as Christian burial places and chapels. The early Christians dug
them from the A.D. 100's to the early 400's, and hid there during periods of
persecution. The catacombs are decorated with paintings on walls and ceilings,
and Christian symbols. The most famous catacombs include those of San Callisto,
San Sebastiano, and Sant'Agnese. See Catacombs.
Other remains. The Pantheon is the
best preserved of all the remains of ancient Rome. The Romans built it as a
temple in honour of all their gods (see Pantheon). The triple Arch of
Constantine, built about A.D. 315, also is well preserved. It includes three
connected arches, side by side, richly decorated with sculpture.
The
ruins of the Domus Aurea (Golden House) are in a popular public
park. This building was the palace of the Emperor Nero. The ruins, which lie
mainly underground, occupy a large area. Paintings cover some of the walls.
The well-preserved Column of Marcus Aurelius, built during the A.D. 100's,
honours Roman victories in battle. It has carvings of war scenes. Stairs inside
the hollow marble column lead to the top, where a statue of Saint Paul has
stood since 1589.
The
Mausoleum of Augustus, begun about 28 B.C., is the tomb of Augustus and the
principal members of his family. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, built the
nearby Ara Pads (Altar of Peace) after establishing the Pax Romana
(Roman Peace), which lasted 200 years. These buildings stood on the Campus Martius
(Field of Mars), which had been used for military training. During the A.D.
200's, barbarian tribes attacked the empire, and Rome built the Aurelian Wall
and other walls for defence. Many parts of these walls are still standing.
Early
days. A legend says that Rome was founded by twin brothers in 753 B.C. For an
account of this story, see Romulus and Remus. Rome expanded, and became the
supreme power of the Western world. For the history of Rome until the fall of
the West Roman Empire in A.D. 476, see Rome, Ancient (History).
After
Rome fell to Germanic tribes, most of the once-splendid city became an
unhealthy area of marshes. In the mid-500's, Emperor Justinian I of the
Byzantine Empire drove the Ostrogoths from Rome. He reestablished Roman rule
of the city as a Byzantine territory, but the decay of Rome continued. See
Byzantine Empire.
Rome
had far-reaching importance as the official centre of the Christian Church.
During the 700's, the popes greatly increased their political power. When
invading Lombards threatened Rome, Pope Stephen II asked for help from Pepin
the Short, king of the Franks. Pepin saved Rome twice, and gave the city and
nearby lands to the pope in 756. Pepin's son Charlemagne later expanded these Papal States, as
they were called. See papal States; Pepin the Short.
Feudal times and the Renaissance. For
hundreds of years after the 800's, Rome was torn by struggles among kings and
princes. Various European rulers tried to control the powerful
popes, especially by influencing papal elections. In 1305, through the efforts
of King Philip IV of France, a French archbishop was elected pope. The new
pope, Clement V, moved his court to Avignon, France. It was returned to Rome in
1377. See Pope (The troubles of the papacy).
During
this period, Cola di Rienzi, an Italian patriot, rebelled against the nobles.
He established a democratic republic in 1347. But Rienzi soon became cruel and greedy for power
and later killed in a riot.
Rome
became one of the most splendid cities of the Renaissance. In 1527, raiding
German and Spanish troops destroyed or stole many of the city's treasures, and
killed thousands of Romans. Soon afterward, the job of rebuilding Rome began.
During the rest of the 1500's and the 1600's, the popes built hundreds of
magnificent buildings. They appointed the finest painters and sculptors,
including Michelangelo, to design and decorate the structures.
The 1800's. In
1798, after Napoleon conquered the Italian Peninsula, the victorious French
troops entered Rome. Napoleon ended the pope's political power in 1809. He made
the Papal States a part of his empire. Napoleon also declared Rome to be the
second city of his
empire,
after Paris. Pope Pius VII fought these changes, and Napoleon had him jailed.
After Napoleon's defeat, the Papal States were returned to the pope in 1815.
During
the early 1800's, movements for unity and freedom from foreign rule swept the
Italian peninsula. But the popes opposed these movements. In 1848, revolutionaries
made Rome a republic, and Pope Pius IX fled the city. French troops captured
Rome in 1849, and restored the pope to power the next year.
In
1861, when Victor Emmanuel II became king of a united Italy, Rome was not yet a
part of the new kingdom. Italian volunteers tried to take Rome in 1867, but
French defenders stopped them. In 1870, after the French had left, Victor
Emmanuel entered the city almost without bloodshed. Fie ended the pope's
political power, and made Rome his capital in 1871. In protest, Pius IX shut himself
up in the Vatican and refused to deal with the government. Succeeding popes
followed the same policy until 1929. That year, Vatican City was made an
independent state, and Roman Catholic Church officials recognized Rome as
Italy's capital.
The 1900's have been a period of widespread construction
in Rome. New buildings and roads have been built, and the city has restored
many ancient buildings and monuments. During the 1920's and 1930's, the Fascist
dictator Benito Mussolini promoted much poorly planned construction. It has led
to severe traffic jams and other city problems today. Mussolini completed a new
University of Rome campus in 1935, and began work on a huge central railway
station in 1938. But construction was halted by World War II (1939-1945). Rome
suffered little damage during the war. Neither side wanted to endanger the life
of Pope Pius XII, who was in Vatican City. The central railway station was
completed in 1950 according to improved new plans.
In
1938, Mussolini began building the Esposizione Universale di Roma
(Universal Exhibition of Rome, or E.U.R.). This world's fair was to have opened
in 1942, and plans called for its buildings to form a government centre later.
The construction was interrupted by the war, and was resumed in 1951. This
E.U.R. project included government and private office buildings, and blocks of
flats, museums, and restaurants. In 1955, Rome's underground system linked the
435-hectare E.U.R. with the new railway station. Some of the 1960 Summer
Olympic Games were held near the E.U.R. in the city's new Sports Palace. The
E.U.R. was completed in 1976. Many large companies and government agencies
operate there. In the early 1980's, Rome's city government adopted a long-term
plan to restore many of Rome's.ruins. By the late 1980's, several important
monuments, including Trajan's Column and the Arch of Constantine, had been restored.
Study aids
Related articles :
Catacombs
City(picture)
Colosseum
Forum,
Roman
Garibaldi,
Giuseppe
Italy
Mazzini,
Giuseppe
Michelangelo
Pantheon
Papal
States
Pope
Rienzi,
Cola di
Rome,
Ancient
Romulus
and Remus
Saint
Peter's Church
Sistine
Chapel
Tiber
River
Vatican
City
Outline
The city today
Parks
and gardens
Schools
Music
and theatre
Sports
Museums
and art galleries
Economy
Government
Churches,
palaces, and fountains
The ancient city
Forums
The Colosseum
Baths
The
catacombs
Other
remains
History
Questions
Why
is Rome called the Eternal City? On how many hills was Rome built?
Where
were public meetings held in ancient Rome?
What
is the largest church in Europe?
What
is Rome's most popular sport?
What
great painter decorated the Sistine Chapel?
How
did the Via del Corso get its name?
Between
which two points does Rome's underground run?
What
were the catacombs? What were they used for?
What
is the legend of the Fountain of Trevi?
Take Note:
The Spanish Steps in Rome are a popular meeting point, as well as a famous
landmark. Many tourists visit the steps every year
Capital and largest
city of Italy (pop. 2,830,569). Lies on both banks of Tiber River in central
Italy. City is on about 20 hills, including famous seven hills of ancient
Rome—Aventine, Caelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Palatine, Quirinal, Viminal.
City ranks as one of world's most important art centres. Ruins of ancient Rome
lie scattered throughout the centre of the modern city. Masterpieces of
Renaissance art and architecture attract visitors from all parts of world.
Visitors also enjoy city's historic squares, fashionable shops, beautiful
parks and gardens.
27 B.C. - Augustus
became first Roman emperor.
44 B.C. - Julius
Caesar, leader of Roman Empire, was assassinated.
509 B.C. -
Romans drove out Etruscans, established a republic.
753 B.C. - Legendary
founding of Rome by twin brothers Romulus and Remus.
AD 395 - East and West Roman empires split apart.
700's -
Popes increased their political power; Papal States established.
The
Colosseum, is the premier landmark of ancient Rome. - This huge amphitheatre was
the site of mock naval battles, combat between gladiators, battles between men
and wild animais, and other public entertainment. The four- storey building
seated about 50,000 spectators. It was in use primarily from A D 80 until the early
400’s. However, some events continued there until the 500's.
Fountain
of the Four Rivers, stands in a square called Piazza Navona. The sculptor Gian
Lorenzo Bernini created the fountain in the mid-1600’s. Its four figures
represent rivers in each of the con tinents of Asia, America, Africa,
Europe—the Ganges, Rio de la Plata, Nile, and Danube.
Vatican City, the
governmental and spiritual centre of Roman Catholic Church, lies in northwestern
Rome. Vatican is smallest independent state in world. It is ruled by the pope.
Vatican Palace
houses many priceless artworks by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael,
and other great masters. Vatican Library, established in 1400's.
The Roman Forum was the centre of
government in ancient Rome.
An Estruscan bronze - wolf, is displayed in
the Capitoline Museum. The figures of Romulus and Remus (twin brothers who,
according to tradition, founded Rome) were added around 1500.
1500's and 1600's - Popes
hired great artists who created magnificent buildings and artworks.
1870 - King
Victor Emmanuel II made Rome capital of Italy, ending pope's political power.
1929 - Vatican
City established as independent state.
1935 - The
University of Rome moved into its new campus, completed under direction of
Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini.
1960 - Summer
Olympic Games . held in Rome.
1976 -
E.U.R. (Universal Exhibition of Rome) project completed. Many large companies
and government agencies there.
The Fountain of Neptune in Rome's Piazza Navona, an historic square surrounded
by beautiful churches and palaces.
The Baths of Caracalla were public baths
dating from the A.D. 200's. Visitors enjoy the site's fine architecture.
The Sports Palace was built for the 1960 Summer
Olympic Games. It lies on the southwestern outskirts of the city.
The University of Rome, founded in 1303,
is the largest university in Italy. About 180,000 men and women
study there.
Central Rome - This map shows the
central area of Rome and locates many of its famous landmarks. The Tiber River
flows through the area. Vatican City, the world's smallest independent country
and the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church, is surrounded by Rome.
The Roman Forum was the centre of Roman government.
The Pantheon was a temple dedicated to Roman gods.
The Arch of Constantine celebrated a military
victory.
Trajan's Column stands 30 metres high.
The
Colosseum was a huge amphitheatre.
The
catacombs were used as Christian burial
places.
A map of Rome shows the city's layout during the 1500's. Some of the
20 hills surrounding Rome rise in the background. The Tiber River flows
through the city. St. Peter's Church stands on what was then the city's southwestern
edge.
A
huge complex called the Esposizione Universale di Roma (Universal
Exhibition of Rome, or E.U.R.) includes numerous modern buildings. Many large
companies and government agencies have their offices in the E.U.R.
The monument to Victor Emmanuel II, the
first king of a united Italy (1861 -1878), was completed in 1911.
A
huge complex called the Esposizione Universale di Roma (Universal
Exhibition of Rome, or E.U.R.) includes numerous modern buildings. Many large
companies and government agencies have their offices in the E.U.R.
Ancient Rome
The
story of ancient Rome is a tale of how a small community of shepherds in
central Italy grew to become one of the greatest empires in history— and then
collapsed. According to Roman legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 B.C.
By 275 B.C., it controlled most of the Italian Peninsula. At its peak, in the
A.D. 100's, the Roman Empire covered about half of Europe, much of the Middle
East, and the north coast of Africa. The empire then began to crumble, partly
because it was too big for Rome to govern. In A.D. 476, warlike Germanic
tribes overthrew the last Roman emperor.
The
millions of people who lived in the Roman Empire spoke many languages and
followed many different customs and religions. But the Roman Empire bound them
together under a common system of law and government. This remarkable
achievement has aroused interest and admiration from ancient times right up to
the present day.
Ancient
Rome had enormous influence on the development of Western civilization because
the empire was so vast and lasted so long. The language of the ancient Romans,
Latin, became the basis of French, Italian, Spanish, and the other Romance
languages. Roman law provided the foundation for the legal systems of most of
the countries in Western Europe and Latin America. Roman principles of justice
and the Roman political system contributed to the building of governments in
many countries. Roman roads, bridges, and aqueducts—some of which are still
used—served as models for engineers in later ages.
This
article provides a broad overview of the people, achievements, government, and
history of ancient Rome. Many separate World Book
articles have detailed information. For a list of these articles, see the Related articles at
the end of the article.
The Roman world
Land. Ancient Rome arose on seven wooded hills along the Tiber River in
central Italy. The Tiber provided a convenient route to the sea, which lay
about 24 kilometres to the west But Rome was far enough from the sea to escape
raids by pirates. Rome's hills were very steep, and so the city could be easily
defended against enemy attacks. Fertile soil and excellent building materials
lay nearby.
The
Italian Peninsula gradually came under Roman rule. The peninsula jutted far out
into the Mediterranean Sea. Italy thus occupied a central position among the
lands bordering the Mediterranean. To the north, the Alps helped protect Italy
against invaders from central Europe. But mountain passes let through a slow
stream of settlers, who were attracted by Italy's mild climate and fertile
soil. In time, the steadily growing population provided the soldiers Rome
needed for expansion.
Roman
rule slowly spread over all the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. The
Romans called the Mediterranean Mare Nostrum (Our
Sea) or Mare Internum (Inland Sea). At its greatest size, in the
A.D. 100's, the
Roman
Empire also extended as far north as the British Isles and as far east as the
Persian Gulf.
The
Roman Empire had many natural resources. They included fertile grainfields in
Sicily and northern Africa, rich mineral deposits in Spain and Britain, and
marble quarries in Greece. There were also thick forests in Asia Minor and
thriving vineyards and olive orchards in Gaul (now France, Belgium, and part of
Germany).
People. The Roman Empire probably had from 50 to 70 million people at its
height. Of that number, nearly I million people lived in Rome, and from 5 to 6
million lived in the rest of Italy.
The
peoples of the Roman Empire differed greatly in their customs and spoke many
languages. Peoples in Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt, and Greece had cultures
far older than that of Rome. But many peoples in Britain, Germany, and Gaul
were introduced to more advanced civilization by the Romans. Throughout the
empire, government officials and members of the upper class spoke Latin and
Greek. But most conquered peoples continued to use their native languages. For
example, people spoke Celtic in Gaul and Britain, Berber in northern Africa,
and Aramaic in Syria and Palestine.
The
people of ancient Rome were divided into various social classes. Very few
Romans belonged to the upper classes. Members of the Senate and their families
made up the most powerful upper-class group. Most people belonged to the lower
classes and had little social standing. Within this group, Romans
distinguished between citizens and slaves. Citizens included small farmers,
city workers, and soldiers. Most slaves were people captured in warfare. In
time, slaves could buy or be given their freedom and become Uberti
(freedmen) and eventually citizens.
As
the Roman world expanded, a new social class became important. This class
consisted of prosperous landowners and business people, who were called equites.
Under the Roman emperors, equites held important government positions and
helped run the empire's civil service.
Roman
citizenship was eventually granted to most peoples of the empire. Citizenship
meant protection under Roman law. The privilege of citizenship promoted loyalty
to the empire and gave peoples of all classes and all regions a greater stake
in its success.
Life of the people
City life. Rome was the capital and the largest city of
the Roman Empire. It had almost a million inhabitants at its
height No earlier city had achieved such size and splendour. Alexandria, in
Egypt, was the empire's second largest city, it had about 750,000 people.
Other important cities included Antioch in Syria and Constantinople (now
Istanbul, Turkey).
Cities
in the Roman Empire served as centres of trade and culture. Roman engineers
planned cities carefully. They located public buildings conveniently and provided
for sewerage and water supply systems. Emperors or wealthy individuals paid for
the construction of such large public buildings as baths, sports arenas, and
theatres. At the heart of a Roman city lay the forum—a
large open space surrounded by markets, government buildings, and temples.
Rich and poor mingled in the bustling forum and at the baths, theatres, and
arenas.
Rural life. The first Romans were shepherds and farmers.
In early Rome, farmers who worked their own land formed the backbone of the
Roman army. They planted their crops in spring and harvested them in autumn.
During the summer, they fought in the army.
Rural
life changed after Rome began to expand its territory. Many farmers were sent
to fight wars abroad for long periods, and so they had to sell their land.
Wealthy Romans then built up large estates on which they raised crops and
livestock to sell for a profit. They bought slaves to work for them and also
rented land to tenant farmers. For most farmers, life was hard. But they could
look forward to regular festivals, such as those at planting and at harvest,
which provided athletic games and other entertainment.
Family life. The head of a Roman household was the paterfamilias
(father of the family). He had total power over all members of his household.
The paterfamilias even had the power to sell his children into slavery or have
them killed. As long as his father lived, a son could not own property or have
legal authority over his own children. Many households were therefore large and
included married sons and their families.
Children
in ancient Rome enjoyed many of the same kinds of toys and games that delight
children today. For example, they had dolls, carts, hobbyhorses, and board
games. They also had dogs, cats, and other pets. But Roman children took on
adult responsibilities sooner than most children do today. In poor rural
families, children had to work in the fields. In wealthier families, children
married early. Most boys married when they were 15 to 18 years old, and most
girls when they were 13 or 14. Parents selected marriage partners for their
children, who had little say in the matter. Many marriages were arranged for
the economic or political benefits they would bring to the families.
Education. Ancient Rome had no state schools. Children
received their earliest education at home under their parents' supervision.
From the age of 6 or 7 until about 10 or 11, most boys and some girls attended
a private school or studied at home. They learned reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Slaves taught the children in many homes. Some slaves, especially those from
Greece, had more education than their masters.
Most
Roman children who received further education came from wealthy families. Until
they were 14, they studied mainly Latin and Greek grammar and literature. They
also studied mathematics, music, and astronomy.
Higher
education in ancient Rome meant the study of rhetoric— that
is, the art of public speaking and persuasion. Only upper-class Romans who
planned a career in law or politics studied rhetoric. Training in rhetoric provided
the skills needed to argue cases before law courts or to debate issues in the
Roman Senate. To improve their abilities as public speakers, students might
also read philosophy and history. Few women studied rhetoric because women
were forbidden to enter politics.
Religion. The
earliest Romans believed that gods an goddesses had power over agriculture and
all aspects of daily life. For example, Ceres was the goddess of the harvest,
the goddess Vesta guarded the hearth fire, and the god Janus stood watch at the
door. Gods called lares and penates guarded both the community and the home. Even Jupiter, who later
became the supreme Roman god, was first worshipped as a sky god with power over
the weather.
During
the 300's B.C., the Romans came into increasing contact with Greek ideas. They
then began to worship Greek gods and goddesses. They gave them Roman names and
built temples and shrines in their honour.
The
government controlled religion. Priests were government officials, who were
either elected or appointed. They performed public ceremonies to win the favour
of the gods and goddesses for the state.
By
A.D. 100, many Romans had lost interest in their religion. They became
attracted to the religions of the Middle East, which appealed strongly to the
emotions. Some of these religions promised salvation and happiness after
death. Christianity, one of the Middle Eastern religions, gained many
followers.
Food,
clothing, and shelter. The Romans began their day at sunrise. Daylight was
precious because the oil lamps the people used after dark gave off little
light. Breakfast was usually a light meal
of bread and cheese.
Most
Romans ate lunch just before midday. For wealthy Romans, it consisted of meat
or fish and olives or fruit. Dinner, the main meal, began in the late afternoon
so that it could end before sunset.
Wealthy
Romans feasted on several courses at dinner. Their first course might include
eggs, vegetables, and shellfish. The main course featured meat, fish, or fowl.
For dessert, they usually ate honey-sweetened cakes and fruit. Poorer Romans
ate much simpler meals. For example, their dinners consisted mainly of porridge
and bread plus some olives, fruit, or cheese.
The
Romans wore simple clothes made of wool or linen. The main garment for both men
and women was a gown called a tunic. It
hung to the knees or below. The tunic also served as nightwear. Over this, men
wore a toga and women wore a palla. Both
garments resembled a large sheet, which was draped around the body. Men almost
always wore white clothing, though the toga of upper-class Romans had a purple
border. Women's clothing might be dyed
various colours.
In the cities, most
Romans lived in crowded clocks of flat from three to five storeys high. Only rich
Romans could afford houses. Their houses were built around a courtyard
called an atrium. Most rooms surrounding the atrium were small and windowless. But
the atrium was spacious and had a roof opening that let in light and air. Large
houses had a second courtyard, called a peristyle, which
served as a garden. Poor people in farm areas lived in huts made of sun-dried
bricks.
Recreation. The
Romans observed many holidays. Most holidays were religious festivals in honour
of gods and goddesses. Holidays had become so numerous by the
A.D. 100's that Emperor Marcus Aurelius limited them to 135 days a year. On
many holidays, the emperor or wealthy government officials sponsored free,
public entertainments in outdoor arenas called amphitheatres.
The
most famous amphitheatre in the city of Rome, the Colosseum, seated about
50,000 spectators. Many of the entertainments held there were violent and
bloody. For example, trained warriors called gladiators
fought one another to the death. Most gladiators were slaves, prisoners of war,
or condemned criminals. In other events, armed men tought wild animals, or
starving beasts attacked condemned criminals.
Chariot
races drew huge crowds in ancient Rome. The races took place in a long, oval
arena called a circus. The Circus Maximus, the largest arena in Rome, held about 250,000
people. Skilled charioteers became popular heroes. Many Romans bet on their
favourites.
Three
theatres in Rome staged comedies and serious dramas by Creek ancient Roman
authors. But most Romans preferred mimes
(short plays about everyday life) or pantomimes
(stories told through music and dancing).
Roman
emperor built lavish public baths decorated in marble and gold to encourage
daily exercise and bathing. Bathers moved through steam rooms and indoor pools
of warm, hot, and cold water. Romans also visited the baths for recreation and
to meet friends. Gymnasiums, exercise grounds, gardens, sitting rooms, and
libraries surrounded the bathing areas.
Work of the people
Agriculture.
About 90 per cent of the people of the Roman world lived by farming. The Romans
understood the need to rotate crops. They also knew that by leaving half of
every field unplanted each year the soil would be enriched for a
crop the next year. However few small landowners could afford that
practice.
In
fertile valleys north and south of Rome, farmers grew such grains as wheat,
rye, and barley. On hillsides and in less fertile soil, they planted olive
groves and vineyards and grazed sheep and goats. Roman farmers also raised
pigs, cattle, and poultry. As the empire expanded, farms in Gaul, Spain, and
northern Africa supplied Rome with many agricultural products.
Manufacturing.
The city of Rome never became a manufacturing centre in ancient times. It
imported most of its manufactured goods. Other Italian communities supplied the
capital with such products as pottery, glassware, weapons, tools, and textiles.
They also made the bricks and lead pipes needed by Rome's booming construction
industry. As the empire expanded, important manufacturing centres developed
outside Italy.
They
served local markets and exported goods to Rome.
Mining was one of ancient Rome's most important activities. The empire's
great building projects required large supplies of marble and other materials.
Marble ‘came from Greece and northern Italy. Italy also had copper and rich
deposits of iron ore. Most of the empire's gold and silver came from Spain. Mines
in Britain produced lead and tin. Work in the mines was hard and unhealthy.
The Romans forced slaves, condemned criminals, and prisoners of war to work in
the mines.
Trade thrived as the Roman Empire expanded. Huge sailing ships carried
cargo from one end of the Mediterranean Sea to the other. Carts and wagons
hauled goods over the empire's vast network of roads.
The
city of Rome's chief imports included foods, raw materials, and
manufactured goods. The Italian Peninsula exported wine and olive oil. The
Romans also traded with lands outside the empire. For example, they imported
silk from China, spices and precious gems from India, and ivory from Africa.
The Roman government issued coins of gold, silver, copper, and bronze and
controlled the money supply, making trade easier.
Transportation and
communication. An excellent system of roads crisscrossed the Roman Empire. The
roads covered about 80,000 kilometres and helped hold the empire together. The
Roman army built the roads to speed troop movements. The roads also promoted
trade and-communication. The highly organized Roman postal system depended
on the road system. The straight, smooth Roman roads were the finest of the
time.
The
Romans built up the largest fleet of cargo ships of ancient times. Their ships
travelled to all ports on the Mediterranean Sea and on such large rivers as the
Rhine, Danube, and Nile.
In
Rome the government published a bulletin called Acta Diurna
(Daily Events). The bulletin was posted in the city's public places and may
have taken the form of words painted on wood. The Acta Diurna
reported on the events of the day, including Senate business. People made
copies of the Acta Diurna and circulated them throughout the empire
like a modern newspaper.
Arts and sciences
Architecture and engineering. The ancient Romans
adopted the basic forms of Greek architecture. These forms included the temple
surrounded by columns and the covered walkway known as a portico. The
Romans also created new kinds of structures, such as public baths and
amphitheatres, that held many people. In general, the Romans designed larger
and grander buildings than did the Greeks.
Two
achievements of Roman engineering made the large Roman buildings possible. They
were the arch and concrete. Arches supported such structures as bridges and the
aqueducts that carried water to Roman cities. Arched roofs called vaults
spanned vast interior spaces of buildings. Vaults eliminated the need for columns
to hold up roofs. Although the Romans did not invent the arch, they were the
first people to realize its possibilities. Concrete, which the Romans did
invent, provided a strong building material for walls and vaults.
Sculpture and painting. Roman sculptors and
painters borrowed from Greek art and native Italian traditions. Their works
thus reflected both the lifelike but idealized human figures of Greek art and
the more realistic aspects of native Italian art.
Roman
sculptors created realistic portraits that revealed individual personalities.
They also illustrated historical events by means of carvings on large public
monuments. For example, the richly decorated Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)
celebrated the peace brought to the empire by Emperor Augustus. Carvings on
tall columns and triumphal arches told of military campaigns.
Large
wallpaintings decorated the houses of well-to-do Romans. Such paintings showed
garden landscapes, events from Roman mythology, and scenes of everyday life.
The richly coloured, carefully created paintings made rooms in houses seem
larger and briahter.
Literature
of ancient Rome was greatly influenced by Greek poetry and drama. The Roman
poets and dramatists Naevius and Ennius and the playwrights Terence and
Plautus adapted Greek forms to Roman audiences. Caesar and Sallust based their
historical writings on
Greek
models. Powerful and original works were produced by Rome's greatest
poets—Catullus, Lucretius, Ovid, and Virgil—and by its most brilliant historian, Tacitus.
Other important works of Latin literature include the speeches of Cicero, the
satires of Florace and Juvenal, and the letters of Cicero and Pliny the
Younger.
Science. The ancient Romans made few scientific discoveries.
But the work of Greek scientists flourished under Roman rule. The Greek
geographer Strabo travelled widely in the Roman Empire and wrote careful descriptions
of what he saw. Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer living in Egypt, developed a theory
of the universe that was accepted for nearly 1,500 years. Galen, a Greek doctor,
proposed important medical theories based on scientific experiments. The
Romans themselves assembled important collections of scientific information.
For example, Pliny the Elder compiled a 37-volume encyclopedia entitled Historia Naturalis
(Natural History).
Government
At
first, a series of kings ruled ancient Rome. Each king was advised by a Senate
made up of the heads of Rome's leading families. Citizens met in assemblies to
vote on the decisions of kina and Senate.
The
Roman Republic was established in 509 B.C, after Roman nobles overthrew the
king. The new government kept many features of the earlier system, including
the Senate and citizen assemblies. Two elected officials called consuls
headed the government. The consuls shared power, but either consul could veto
the actions of the other. A consul served for only a year.
The
Senate was the most powerful government body of the Roman Republic. The Senate
conducted foreign policy, passed decrees
(official orders), and handled the government's finances. Senators, unlike
consuls, serve for life. At first, all senators were patricians— that
is, embers of Rome's oldest and richest families. Patricians controlled not
only the Senate but also the assembly that elected the consuls and other
important officials. All the rest of Rome s citizens, who were called plebeians, had
little political influence.
To
obtain political rights, plebeians formed their own assembly, the Concilium
Plebis, and elected leaders called tribunes.
Largelv through the work of the tribunes, plebeians gradually gained the same
political rights as the patricians. In time, a new and larger assembly, the Comitia Tributa,
developed. It represented both patricians and plebeians, but plebeians largely
controlled the assembly.
The
Roman Republic lasted nearly 500 years, until 27 B.C It combined strong heads
of state, a respected Senate of senior statesmen, and assemblies where the people
could be heard. For centuries afterward, historians and political scientists
viewed the Roman Republic as a model of balanced government.
The
Roman Empire was established in 27 B.C., after the republic had been destroyed
by 20 years of civil war. The empire lasted until Rome fell in A.D. 476. During
that time, emperors held supreme authority. The republican institutions of
government were kept. But emperors nominated the consuls and appointed new
senators. The citizen assemblies had little power. Emperors headed the army and
directed the making of laws. They relied more on their own advisers than on the
Senate. A vast civil service handled the empire's day-to-day business.
The law. The
Romans published their first known code of law about 450 B.C. This code, called
the Laws of the Twelve Tables, set down accepted practices in written form.
Roman law remained flexible. It depended on the interpretations of skilled
lawyers and judges.
Through
the years, a general set of legal principles developed fhat governed all the
various peoples living under Roman rule. Roman lawyers called this set of
principles the jus gentium (law of nations). The jus gentium was
based on common-sense notions of fairness. It took into account local customs
and practices.
The army. Under
the Roman Republic, the army was made up only of citizens who owned land. The
Romans felt that property owners had a greater stake in the republic than did
landless people and would therefore defend it better.
As
Rome began to fight wars overseas, it required more soldiers, and they had to
serve for longer periods. The government abolished the property requirement in
107 B.C and opened the army to volunteers. The army then offered a long-term
career for many Romans. In time, more and more soldiers were recruited from the
provinces. By about 20 B.C, some 300,000 men served in the Roman army. The
number of soldiers changed little thereafter. Most soldiers were professionals,
whose training and discipline made the Roman army one of the greatest fighting
forces in history.
Roman
soldiers did not only fight. They also built roads, aqueducts, walls, and
tunnels. After Rome reached its greatest size, the army's main task was to defend
the empire's frontiers. Many troops were thus stationed along the Rhine and
Danube rivers. Other important army posts stood in Egypt, Syria, and Britain.
History
Beginnings.
Historians know little about the early days of ancient Rome. According to Roman
legend, twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, established a settlement in 753 B.C.
on the Palatine Hill, one of Rome's hills overlooking the Tiber River. Creek
legend told of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who founded a settlement in central
Italy after the destruction of Trov bv the Greeks in the Trojan War. Some
versions combined the two myths and made Romulus and Remus descendants of
Aeneas.
The
first known settlers of ancient Rome lived on the Palatine Hill about 1000 B.C.
Most historians believe that these settlers were a people called Latins. Latins
also inhabited many neighbouring towns in Latium, the region surrounding Rome.
A succession of kings ruled the Latins of Rome.
About
600 B.C., Rome and other towns in Latium came under the control of the
Etruscans, a people who lived north of Latium. The Etruscans had the most
advanced civilization in Italy. They built roads, temples, and public buildings
in Rome. They also promoted trade and introduced the idea of the citizen
assembly. Under Etruscan rule, Rome grew from a village of farmers and shepherds
into a prosperous city. The city became so powerful that the people were able
to drive out the Etruscans.
The early republic. The
Roman Republic was established in 509 B.C., after the overthrow of the
monarchy. However, the institutions of republican government developed
gradually through a long struggle between the landowning upper class—that is,
the patricians—and all the other citizens, the plebeians. At first, only
patricians held political office, served as priests, and interpreted Roman law.
Plebeians had few political rights and often received unfair treatment from
judges.
Plebeians
fought for political rights during the 400's and 300's B.C. By 287 B.C., they
had won the right to hold any public or religious office and had gained
equality under the law. But vast differences in wealth and social position
still separated most plebeians from patricians.
Meanwhile,
Rome was slowly gaining military control over the rest of the Italian
Peninsula. In 493 B.C, Rome entered an alliance with the Latin League, a
federation of cities of Latium. Rome had become the largest city in Latium by
396 B.C and thereafter used the league's resources to fight wars with its
neighbours. Rome offered protection and certain privileges of Roman citizenship
to the cities it conquered. In return, the conquered cities supplied the Roman
army with soldiers.
During
the 30ffs B.C, Rome won victories over the Etruscans. Rome also defeated the
Gauls, who had invaded Italy from the north and burned Rome in 390 B.C In 338
B.C, Rome overpowered and disbanded the Latin League. In 290 B.C, the Romans
conquered the Samnites, a mountain people who lived south of Rome.
Rome
ruled most of the Italian Peninsula by 275 B.C, after defeating the Greek
colony of Tarentum in southern Italy, and the Greek king Pyrrhus, Tarentum's
champion.
Expansion overseas made Rome a mighty
empire during the 200's and 100's B.C Rome came into conflict first with
Carthage, a sea power and trading centre on the coast of northern Africa. Rome
and Carthage fought for mastery of the Mediterranean Sea in three struggles called
the Punic Wars. In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C), Rome conquered Sicily, an
island off the tip of Italy, and made it the first Roman province. Rome also
seized two other Mediterranean islands—Sardinia and Corsica. In the Second Punic
War (218-201 B.C), the brilliant Carthaginian general Flannibal led his army
over the Alps and invaded Italy. Although Flannibal won several key battles,
Roman manpower and endurance eventually wore him down. Under the leadership of
Scipio, the Roman forces defeated Flannibal in 202 B.C. In the Third Punic War
(149-146 B.C), Rome destroyed Carthage. These victories brought the
Mediterranean coasts of Spain and Africa under Roman control.
After
the Second Punic War, Rome began to expand in the east. At first Rome acted to
protect its allies along Italy's east coast from pirate raids. But it soon
became involved in conflicts between Greece and Macedonia. Macedonia, which
lay north of Greece, had conquered the Greeks in 338 B.C. Rome posed as the liberator
of the Greeks. But by the 140's B.C., it had taken control of Greece and
Macedonia. In 133 B.C., King Attalus III of Pergamum, a Roman ally, died and
left his kingdom (now part of Turkey) to Rome.
Two
reasons help explain Rome's remarkable expansion overseas. First, Rome built
an alliance of cities in Italy that supplied the army with enormous manpower.
Second, pride in their military power and government institutions gave the
Romans great confidence in their superiority and in the justness of their
cause.
Breakdown of the republic. Although the Romans had
triumphed overseas, they faced growing discontent at home. Wealthy Romans
profited from the tax revenues, slaves, and looted property that poured into
Rome from defeated lands. But unemployment rose as plantations worked by
slaves drove out the small farmers, and the gap between rich and poor widened.
In 133 and 123 B.C, two Roman tribunes tried to help the poor. Tiberius
Gracchus and his brother, Gaius Gracchus, promoted a programme to distribute
state-owned land to the poor. But the majority of the Senate opposed them, and
both brothers were assassinated.
Conflicts
among leaders caused upheaval in the Roman Republic during its last 100 years.
Revolts by Rome's Italian allies, a war in Asia, and unrest at home weakened
the republic. In 82 B.C, the Roman general Lucius Sulla became dictator. Sulla
restored stability to the government and strengthened the Senate by bringing
in new leaders. Sulla retired in 79 B.C., but he had given Rome a taste of
one-man rule.
In
the 60s B.C., Rome again began to expand overseas. The Roman general Pompey
conquered eastern Turkey, Syria, and Palestine. He returned to Rome a popular
hero, but the Senate refused to recognize his victories. As a result, Pompey and
two other Roman leaders- Julius Caesar and Marcus Crassus—formed a three-man
political alliance called the First Triumvirate in 60 B.C Crassus died in
warfare in 53 B.C. Other Roman leaders then tried to split the two surviving
members of the Triumvirate.
From
58 to 51 B.C., Caesar conquered Gaul, thereby adding the huge territory west of
the Rhine River to the Roman world. Pompey and the Senate feared Caesar's power
and ambition, and they ordered him to give up his command. But Caesar marched
his troops across the Rubicon, a stream that separated Italy from Gaul, and invaded
Italy in 49 B.C. In the civil war that followed, Caesar defeated Pompey and
his followers. By 45 B.C., Caesar had become sole ruler of the Roman world. A
group of aristocrats who hoped
to revive the Roman Republic assassinated him in 44 B.C.
Civil
war again broke out after Caesar's death. In 43 B.C., Caesar's adopted son and
heir, Octavian, formed the Second Triumvirate with two army officers, Mark
Antony and Marcus Lepidus. Octavian and Antony defeated Caesars enemies and
soon pushed Lepidus aside. Octavian and Antony then fought each other for control
of Rome. Antony sought the support of Cleopatra, queen of Fgypt, and they fell
in love. In 31 B.C., Octavian defeated the forces of Antony and Cleopatra in
the Battle of Actium off the west coast of Greece. The next year, the Romans
conquered Egypt and made it a Roman province.
After
the defeat of Antony, Octavian was the unchallenged leader of the Roman world.
In 27 B.C., he became the first Roman emperor and took the name Augustus,
meaning exalted. In spite of his power, Augustus avoided the title of emperor. He
preferred to be called princeps, meaning first citizen.
Nearly 20 years of civil war had destroyed the republic. Only a strong central
authority seemed able to govern the empire.
The height of the empire. The reign of Augustus
marked the beginning of a long period of stability, which became known as the Pax Romana
(Roman Peace). The Pax Romana lasted about 200 years. Augustus reestablished
orderly government and the rule of law. The Senate, consuls, and tribunes still
functioned, but Augustus had supreme power. He commanded the army, controlled
the provinces, and filled the Senate with his supporters.
Augustus
established strong defences along the frontiers of the Roman Empire and kept
the provinces under control. He began to develop a civil service staffed by
skilled
administrators to help govern the empire. Trade flourished, and art and
literature reached a high point during what has been called the Auqvstan Age.
Augustus
died in A.D. 14. He had groomed his stepson Tiberius to succeed him, thereby
preparing the way for a succession of emperors. Members of Augustus' family,
known as the Julio-Claudians, ruled until A.D. 68. They were followed by the
Flavian family, which reigned until A.D. 96 The Roman Empire reached its height
of power and prosperity during the reign of the Antonines, from A.D. 96 to 180.
The Antonine rulers—Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus
Aurelius—were noted for their wisdom and ability.
The
Roman Empire grew relatively little after the reign of Augustus. In A.D. 43,
Emperor Claudius invaded Britain. Trajan seized Dacia (now part of Hungary and
Romania) in A.D. 106. The stable political and military situation encouraged
Romans to invest in land. Small farms and large estates thrived. Roman roads
made excellent communications possible. Roman emperors encouraged the
founding of new towns and cities, even in remote areas. The civil service grew
increasingly skilled at running the day-to-day business of the empire. Provincial
governors usually served long terms and so gained familiarity with the
territories they controlled.
The
authority of the Roman emperors gradually grew stronger. An emperor's order
overruled any act of the Senate. The Romans worshipped an emperor as a god
after his death. Emperor worship provided a common base of loyalty among the
empire's peoples, who otherwise observed many different religions and
traditions.
In
the eastern part of the Roman Empire, a new religion developed based on the
teachings of Jesus Christ. Although the Romans crucified Jesus for treason in about
A.D. 30, His followers spread Christianity throughout the empire. The Roman
government took little notice of Christianity at first. Persecutions of
Christians stemmed from local hostility rather than orders from Rome.
Crowing disorder. Marcus Aurelius became
emperor in A.D. 161. He defended the Roman Empire against attacks by Germanic
tribes from the north and Parthians from the east. But growing disorder plagued
the empire after his son, Emperor Commodus, died in 192. Many emperors seized
power by force, and rival leaders fought for the throne. From 235 to 284, 60
men were proclaimed emperor. Most of the men were army commanders whose troops
named them emperor.
The
enormous size of the Roman Empire hastened its breakdown. A central authority
in Rome could no longer hold the empire together. In addition, the struggles
for power among Roman generals seriously weakened the empire's defences. The
Goths, a Germanic people, invaded Roman territory many times during the 200's,
and the Persians overran Mesopotamia and Syria.
Temporary recovery. Diocletian, a Roman
general, was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 284. Diocletian realized that
one man could no longer govern the empire. To restore order, he divided the
provinces into smaller units. Each unit had its own government and army. He
appointed a soldier named Maximian to be coemperor and two deputies to succeed
them. Maximian ruled the western part of the empire, and Diocletian ruled the
eastern part, Diocletian's reforms temporarily halted the empire's collapse.
But heavy taxes were needed to pay for the larger army and government.
Christians
suffered severe persecution during the 200's. Many Romans blamed them for
causing the evils of the time by having offended the traditional Roman gods. In
303, Diocletian forbade Christian worship.
Constantine
I was named emperor of Rome's western provinces in 306. Diocletian's system of
shared rule and succession quickly broke down as several men struggled for the
throne. In 312, Constantine defeated his major rival after having had a vision
promising victory if he fought under the sign of the cross. In 313, Constantine
and Licinius, emperor of the eastern provinces, granted Christians freedom of
worship. Constantine and Licinius ruled jointly until 324, when Constantine defeated
his co-emperor in war. Constantine, who later became known as "the
Great," moved his capital to Byzantium in 330 and renamed the city
Constantinople.
Decline and fall. After Constantine died
in 337, his three sons and two of his nephews fought for control of the Roman
Empire. One of the nephews, Julian, became emperor in 361. Julian tried to
check the spread of Christianity and restore the traditional Roman religion.
But by the late 300's, Christianity had become the official religion of the
empire. The empire was permanently split into the West Roman Empire and the
East Roman Empire after Emperor Theodosius I died in 395.
The
West Roman Empire grew steadily weaker. The Vandals, Visigoths, and other
Germanic peoples invaded Spain, Gaul, and northern Africa. In 410, the Visigoths
looted Rome. The fall of the empire is often dated 476. That year, the Germanic
chieftain Odoacer forced Romulus Augustulus, the last ruler of the West Roman
Empire, from the throne. Germanic chieftains had already begun to carve up the
West Roman Empire into several kingdoms. The East Roman Empire survived as the
Byzantine Empire until 1453, when the Turks captured Constantinople.
The Roman heritage. The Roman Empire fell
from political power. But its culture and institutions survived and shaped
Western civilization and the Byzantine world. Roman law became the base of many
legal systems in western Europe and Latin America. Latin remained the
language of learned Europeans for over 1,000 years. French, Italian, Spanish,
and other Romance languages developed from Latin. Roman architecture still
inspires the design of public buildings today.
The
Roman Empire transmitted its social and economic system to the Middle Ages,
the period of European history from the 400's to the 1500's. During the Middle
Ages, the Roman Catholic Church replaced the Roman Empire as the unifying force
in Europe. The church modelled its administrative structure on the organization
of the Roman Empire. It used the Latin language and preserved the classics of
Latin literature.
Learning about ancient Rome
Most
of our knowledge about ancient Rome comes from written records of the Romans.
These records include such documents as law codes, treaties, and decrees of the emperors and the Roman Senate. Other
written records are masterpieces of Latin literature. In many works, the
authors wrote about events they lived through. Such works include the letters
and speeches of Cicero and the letters of Pliny the Younger. Julius Caesar wrote
about his conquest of Gaul in Commentaries on the Gallic War.
Roman historians supplied the narrations that connected many of the events that
other writers described. Livy told of Rome's development from its legendary
origins to his own time, the Augustan Age. Tacitus described the period of
Roman history from Emperors Tiberius to Domitian. Suetonius wrote biographies
of the rulers from Julius Caesar to Domitian.
Scenes
carved on monuments also portray events in Roman history. For example, Trajan's
Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius, both in Rome, tell about Trajan's and
Marcus Aurelius' military campaigns.
The
remains of Roman towns and cities also provide valuable information. Pompeii
and Herculaneum, which lay south of Rome, were buried when Mount Vesuvius
erupted in A.D. 79. Excavations of the sites have told us much about everyday
life in Roman times.
Interest
in the study of ancient Rome reawakened during the Renaissance, the great
cultural movement that swept across Europe from the early 1300's to about 1600.
The Renaissance started in Italy as scholars rediscovered the works of ancient
Greek and Roman authors. In modern times, the first major history of Rome was The History of
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-1788), a
six-volume work by the British historian Edward Gibbon. The German historian
Theodor Mommsen produced some important studies on Roman law and history. His History of Rome
(1854-1856) has influenced all later scholarship on ancient Rome.
Related articles:
Biographies
Agrippina
the Younger
Antony,
Mark
Brutus,
Marcus Junius
Caesar,
Julius
Cassius
Longinus,
Gaius
Catiline
Cato
(family)
Cincinnatus,
Lucius Q.
Coriolanus,
Gaius Marcius
Crassus,
Marcus Licinius
Gaius
Galen
Gracchus
family
Marius,
Gaius
Octavia
Pilate,
Pontius
Plotinus
Pompey
the Great
Porphyry
Regulus,
Marcus Atilus
Roscius,
Quintus
Scipio,
Publius Cornelius
Spartacus
Sulla,
Lucius Cornelius
Buildings and works
Appian
Way
Column
Aqueduct
Forum,
Roman
Archaeology
(pictures)
Pantheon
Atrium
Basilica
Catacombs
Colosseum
Road
Roman
Roads
Roman
walls
Cities and regions
Galatia
Gaul
Herculaneum
Latium
Numidia
Pompeii
Rome
(Ancient city)
Contributions to civilization
Architecture
Drama
(Roman
Geology
(The
Library
(History)
Julian
calendar
Latin
language
Latin
literature
Law
(Ancient
Library
(History)
Mythology
Oratory
(Classical Painting)
Roman
numerals
Romance
languages
Sculpture
Twelve
Tables, Laws
Daily
Life
Gladiator
Augur
Bath
(history)
Lares
and Penates
Clothing
(Clothing through the ages)
Education
(history)
Sibyl
Food
(Ancient)
Toga
Triumph
Government
Consul
Plebeians
Dictactorships
Equestrian
order
Fasces
Tribune
Triumvirate
Legion
Praetor
Praetorian
guard
Patricians
History
England
History
Actium,
Battle of Barbarian Byzantine Empire Etruscans
Flag (Historical
flags of the world)
Punic
Wars
Romulus
and Remus
Rubicon
Sabines
Ship
(Roman ships)
History
of the World (The Romans)
Outline
The Roman world
Land
People
Life of the people
City life
Rural
life
Family
life
Education
Religion
Food,
clothing, and
shelter
Recreation
Work of the people
Agriculture
Manufacturing
Mining
Trade
Transportation
and communication
Arts and Trade
Architecture
and engineering
Sculpture
and painting
Literature
Science
Government
The
Roman Republic
The
Roman Empire
The
law
The
army
History
Learning about
ancient Rome
Questions
Why
did rhetoric play an important role in higher education in ancient Rome?
Where
do we get most of our knowledge of ancient Rome? What steps did Diocletian take
to restore order?
What
was an atrium and what purpose did it serve?
Why
was the army of the Roman Republic made up only of property owners?
Why
was building a network of roads so important?
What
two reasons help explain Rome's remarkable expansion overseas?
Where
do Roman legal principles survive today?
What
two engineering achievements made it possible for the Romans to construct large
buildings?
How
did Roman emperors limit the role of the members of the Roman Senate?
Take note:
Rome, University of, is the largest
university in Italy. It has divisions of architecture; economics and commerce;
education; engineering; law; letters and philosophy; mathematics, physics, and
chemistry; medicine; pharmacy; political science; and statistical sciences. The
university has about 180,000 students. Its library owns about 1 million books
and pamphlets.
The
university was founded in 1303 by Pope Boniface VIII. During the 1500's, it
became famous as a centre for the study of medicine and other sciences. The
Italian government has controlled the university since 1870.
See
also Rome (picture: The University of Rome). Romeo and Juliet. See
Shakespeare, William (Shakespeare's plays).
A triumphal
procession paraded through the Roman Forum, the chief public square of ancient
Rome, when a victorious general returned from war. The general rode in a
chariot followed by his army. Before him marched trumpeters and Roman senators
and other high government officials.
A Roman house - a typical large
house of a wealthy Roman. A courtyard called an atrium
served as a reception room. An opening in the atrium roof let in air and light.
Other rooms opened onto the atrium. Brightly coloured wallpaintings and marble
floor tiles decorated some atriums, such as the one below. A second courtyard,
called a peristyle, was planted with trees, flowers, and shrubs
It might also have had a fishpond and a fountain. Fruits and vegetables were
grown in a walled garden at the rear of the house. In some houses, small shops
faced the street.
Trained warriors called gladiators battled to the
death before huge crowds in ancient Rome. Some gladiators wore armour and
carried a sword and a shield. Others used only a net and a spear or trident.
They tried to entangle their opponent in the net before driving in the spear.
Crowded shops occupied the ground floors of many buildings in ancient
Rome. At the market, women did their shopping, men drank wine with friends, and
craft workers sold their handiwork. Public fountains in the narrow streets
provided water for Roman homes.
Aqueduct construction, above, was one of the peacetime
activities of the Roman army. Roman aqueducts carried water long distances from
rivers and mountain springs. The water ran in a channel along the top of an
aqueduct. Roman soldiers also built roads, bridges, tunnels, and walls.
Highlights in the history of ancient Rome
753
B.C: According to legend, Romulus and Remus founded Rome.
509
B.C: The Romans drove out the Etruscans and
established a republic.
264-146
BC: Rome began its expansion overseas by defeating Carthage in three Punic
Wars.
27
B.C.: Augustus became the first Roman emperor.
The
legendary founders of Rome were twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. According to Roman
mythology, a wolf nursed them as babies.
The Etruscan culture of central Italy influenced Rome
during the 500's B.C. Under Etruscan rule, Rome grew from a village into a
prosperous city.
Cicero, the great Roman statesman and orator, supported Rome's republican
government. But the Roman Republic ended soon after he died in 43 B.C.
A.D. 96-180: The
Roman Empire reached its height of power and prosperity.
A.D. 395: The
Roman Empire split into two parts—the West Roman Empire and the East Roman
Empire.
A.D. 476: The last emperor of the West Roman Empire,
Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by a Germanic tribe.
Latin literature flourished in the Age of Augustus, from 27 B.C to A.D.
14. The poet Virgil, seated,
wrote of Rome's creation in his great epic, the Aeneid.
The praetorians were soldiers who guarded the emperor. In time, the
emperors grew removed from the people and were worshipped as gods after death.
Christianity spread rapidly in the Roman Empire, though Christians
were often persecuted. Christians were granted freedom of worship in A.D. 313.
Growth of the Roman Empire - Ancient Rome began to
expand during the 300s B.C. and by 275 B.C. ruled much of Italy. Expansion
overseas made Rome the dominant Mediterranean power by 133 B.C. The Roman
Empire grew relatively little after the death of Augustus in A.D. 14. It
reached its greatest size under Trajan, who ruled until A.D. 117.
Division of the Roman
Empire - The Roman Empire grew weaker during the A.D. 300's. In 395, it was
split into the west Roman Empire and the East Roman Empire. Each empire was
subdivided into parts called prefectures. The
West Roman Empire soon fell to Germanic tribes. But the East Roman Empire
survived as the Byzantine Empire until 1453.
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