ARMY
Army is the branch of a nation’s armed forces that is trained to fight on hand. An army consists of ground troops, their weapons and equipment, and military bases. In some countries, the largest units of the army are themselves called armies. These units consist of infantry, armoured tanks, and artillery, plus support troops who handle TRANSPORT, MEDICAL CARE, AND OTHER RESPONSIBILITIES.
Almost every nation has an army. But armies vary greatly in makeup and fighting strength, based largely on a nation’s technology. Nearly all the industrialized countries have an army with well-equipped infantry and the latest types of tanks and artillery. Such armies also have hundreds of helicopters, personnel carriers, and short-range guided missiles. These armies combine high mobility with tremendous firepower. Developing nations, on the other hand, must rely heavily on specially trained infantry and on guerilla warfare and similar hit-and-run tactics. Most of these nations have limited industries with which to manufacture weapons and other military equipment, and must import arms.
Countries also differ in the way they raise and maintain their army. Some nations use conscription, in which certain individuals are selected for duty. Others have universal military service, which requires all qualified men and women in a certain age range to serve. Still other nations have a completely volunteer army.
Most nations divide their army into a regular army and an army reserve. The regular army consists of professional soldiers. They continually receive training and are always on active duty and ready for combat. The army reserve, called the national guard or militia in some countries, consists of civilians who receive training periodically. Reservists are on inactive duty except during their training and may be called to active duty in an emergency.
For thousands of years, warfare consisted almost entirely of battles between armies. Many major land battles changed the course of history. In time, the power of navies – and later of aeroplanes and guided missiles – ended the dominance of armies. An army could no longer fight effectively if the enermy controlled the sea and the air. The development of nuclear weapons in the mid-1900’s changed the role of armies even further. Today, the main striking force of the most powerful nations consists of long-range bomber planes and guided missiles. These planes and missiles are capable of delivering nuclear weapons. However, armies continue to play vital roles in both war and peace.
The missions of armies
In war, a nation uses its army to conquer enemy territory and to defend itself from attack. In peacetime, an army can help prevent war. It also aids civilians in certain emergencies.
Conquest. A nation may seek to take over territory held by an enemy. The attacker’s tanks and other armoured vehicles invade the enermy’s territory, with planes and artillery supporting the advance. Other planes drop airborne troops behind enemy lines, and helicopters fly in commandos to seize certain key positions. Later, mechanized infantry sweeps in and occupies the conquered territory.
Defence. An army is trained or both offensive and defensive combat operations. But some units may be assigned to fight only in case of an enemy attack. In such cases, fortifications are defended chiefly by infantry and artillery. Mobile units are held in reserve to counterattack.
Prevention of war. A powerful nation may sometimes station troops in politically troubled regions or in areas threatened by attack. A show of military strength may help prevent war. In 1965, for example, the United States sent troops to the Dominican Republican to maintain order after rebels tried to take over that country.
The development of tactical nuclear weapons in the 1960’s gave armies another important peacekeeping function. The word tactical refers to certain nuclear weapons that are used only in battle, rather than in areas far behind enemy lines. An invaded nation might counterattack with tactical nuclear weapons. Its counterattack could lead to expanded use of these weapons and even to an all-out nuclear war. The fear of such a catastrophe might deter a nation from invading an enemy.
Civilian aid may be provided by an army in various emergencies. For examples, medical personnel and other army specialists may be sent to care for VICTIMS OF A DISASTER SUCH AS AN EARTHQUAKE OR A FLOOD. Armyunits may also help local police control riots and other disorders.
Repression. An army may be used to put down a civilian uprising. This happened in 1956 when Soviet troops crushed the Hungarian revolt. In 1989, the Chinese people’s Liberation Army helped the government quell the student democracy movement.
The world’s major armies
As army’s ranking among the armies of the worlds is based on its overall fighting strength. In general, fighting strength depends on the number of troops on active duty. But an army’s size does not necessarily reflect its actual strength. For example, a small army with tactical nuclear weapons may have greater striking power than a large army with outdated weapons.
The Chinese Army is the world’s largest army. It has about 600,000 people in its reserve and about 1 million in its armed militia.
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Army is made up of troops from the former Soviet Union. Before its breakup, the Soviet Union had the world’s second largest army. About 1 ½ million troops were on active duty. Most of them were based in the western part of the Soviet Union, in Eastern Europe and along the Soviet border with China. The Soviet Army had both volunteers and conscripts. Reserves totaled about 3 million.
In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up into a number of independent states, most of which formed a loose association known as the Commonwealth of Independent States. The CIS took command of the Soviet army. In 1992, the states began establishing their own armies, absorbing troops from what had been the Soviet army.
The United States Army has about 730,000 troops on active duty and about 1 million in the reserve and the National Guard. All are members.
The German Army has about 330,000 people on active duty and about 860,000 in the reserve. Both volunteers and conscripts serve in the German Army.
The French Army has about 280,000 members on active duty. France has about 330,000 members in its army reserve. The French Army has both volunteers and conscripts.
The Army of the United Kingdom has about 145,000 troops on active duty, 188,600 people in the reserves, and about 71,300 members of the territorial army. All are volunteers.
Other major armies include those of Egypt, India, Iraq, North Korea, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and Vietnam. Each of these armies has more than 300,000 troops on active duty. The armies purchase weapons and equipment from the world’s major powers, but none has tactical nuclear weapons.
India has a well-trained and equipped army with 1,200,000 members. Pakistan has an army of about 450,000 people and maintains a large reserve force. The South African army has 75,000 members, of whom 55,000 are conscripted. The Australian arm is small about 30,000 people, with 25,800 reserves. All the people in the army are volunteers. The 6,000 members of the New Zealand army are also volunteers.
History
Ancient armies developed of civilizations grew in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Asia, and in the Nile Valley of Africa. As early as 3200 BC, the Babylonians had built a regular army of spearmen and bowmen. About 2500 BC, the Sumerians, who lived in lands south of Babylonia used the first war chariots. Small wild asses and later, horses drew these chariots. By the 700’s BC, the Assyrians had organized armies equipped with spears and battering-rams.
In the 600’s BC, the ancient Greeks introduced the phalanx, probably the first important tactical formation in history. In this formation, heavily armoured spearmen stood four to fifty rows deep in a solid rectangle. Although it could be used in attack, the phalanx was essentially a defensive formation.
The mightiest conqueror of the period was cyrus the Great of Persia. In the 300’s BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia, the next world conqueror, organized the first known military supply system.
The Romans developed the next great tactical formation. In the early 300’s BC, they devised the legion (see Legion). This rectangular formation had greater flexibility than the phalanx. It consisted of three lines of small phalanxes called maniples or, later, cohorts. The Romans conquered Carthage in 146 BC and built a greater empire. They were also great military engineers. Julius Caesar’s armies built road, briges and forts throughout much of Europe.
In China, another civilization grew up in isolation from the empires of Europe and western Asia. The Chinese invented gunpowder in the AD 900’s, several hundred years before it became known in Europe. But gunpowder did not become an important weapon of war for the Chinese, because they did not use it in artillery except possibly in rockets.
Armies in the Middles Ages. After the Roman Empire collapsed by AD 476, Europe had no large regular armies for several hundred years. All able-bodied free men in the tribes that overrun the empire were also warriors. The tradition of a militia, citizen (as opposed to professional) soldiers, developed at this time.
During the Middle Ages, the basis of society was a military relationship. Landowners organized their own personal armies from among their workers. These part-time soldiers fought for limited periods in home defence armies effectively. They began to hire mercenaries by promising booty or pay. These mercenary soldiers use crossbows and other weapons they had learned to handle in their homelands. They sometimes deserted their employer at the height of a battle if they could get higher pay from the enemy.
The best-known mercenaries of the late Middle Ages were the Swiss pikemen and the Genoese crossbowmen. In a phalanx formation, the pikemen could throw back cavalry charges while the crossbowmen fired darts into the enermy’s lines. In the 1300’s, mercenaries in Gemany, Italy, and Switzerland were formed in the first military companies. The company later became the basic unit in many armies.
During the 1300’s, the Ottoman Turks became the first people since the Romans to build an army of full-time professional troops. These Ottoman troops, called Janissaries, served in peacetime as well as in war. In 1445, King Charles VII of France hired companies of mercenaries on a permanent basis, and set up the first regular army in Europe since Roman times.
Many modern military organizations trace their origin t o the German Landsknechte (infantry) and the Reiter (cavalry) of the late 1400’s. The Germans based their organization on the English mercenaries known as Free Companies, and on the Swiss mercenaries. The Germans also organized the first supply units for their combat troops. Early armies had lived off the land did not have separate supply organizations. In the 1500’s, the German cavalry formed a quartermaster office to find quarters and food.
Gunpower hastened the development of army organization and tactics. The use of gunpower in gun began in Europe during the 1300’s. English soldiers used first cannos in the Battles of Crecy in 1346. These cannons fired stones and were clumsy and difficult to move. As gunpowder gained wider use, armies developed cannons powerful enough to shatter thick castle walls.
The Rise of Modern Armies. By the late 1600’s, infantry armed with the new socket bayonet and the musket could defend themselves against cavalry charges. They did not have to rely on pikemen. Three rows of soldiers stood in ranks, shoulder to shoulder, in a formation called the line. Infantrymen fired volleys at close range from their smoothbore muskets.
The obligation of all men to serve in wartime had disappeared almost everywhere by the early 1600’s. But Sweden kept this custom throughout the Middle Ages and King Gustavus Adolphus used conscription to recruit troops for the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). He gave his army greater mobility by equipping it with lighter weapons and increased firepower. His force is sometimes called the first modern army. (see Gustavus, Adolphus, and Thirty Year’s War).
During the 1700’s, most governments continued to build their armies by voluntary recruitment, especially among the poor and unemployed. Armies became professional groups of well-trained foot soldiers supported by artillery and cavalry. Most countries followed certain rules in warfare. Campaigns took place only in good weather. The troops went into quarters in winter and did not fight again until spring. They tried to attain a favourable position before they attacked the enemy. Commanders who were caught in a poor position often withdrew instead of fighting to the finish.
In the mid-1700’s, Federick the Great of Prussia introduced greater mobility to warfare. When his enemies outnumbered him, he struck quickly and unexpectedly. Frederick had to fight wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attack him.
The growth in the size of armies made necessary an organization to control troops from a distance. Only a military genius such as Napoleon could personally direct many military units in the field. From 1840 on, railways began to spread across Europe. The Prussians realized that they could move armies much more quickly by rail and this made more accurate long-range planning possible. Gerhard von Scharnhorst of the Prusian Army developed the modern general staff that planned future military operations.
During the 1800’s, the Industrial Revolution led to the mass production of weapons and ammunition. It later brought the invention of the aeroplane and motorized vehicles. Commanders could direct armies in separated battlefronts by radio and other means of communication.
Armies in the two world wars. When World War I, began in 1914, the machine gun became the dominant weapon on the battlefield. The use of machine guns made free movement impossible on the western front. Both sides adopted trench warfare. Infantry dug in to hold their positions when they could not advance against the enemy. Railways carried millions of soldiers to the fighting fronts. Motor trucks hauled suppliers from railheads to the front lines. See World War I.
Field commanders tried to end trench warfare and regain tactical mobility. They shelled and bombed the enermy lines and followed with mass bayonet attacks. But for three years, most of these assaults failed. The trenches of the western front remained almost attack-proof. Army commanders found a solution, but they used it improperly and too late. The British built an armoured tracked vehicle with a petrol engine and create the first military tank (see tank). Tanks eventually replaced horse calvary. During the war, aeroplanes were used for the first time to support ground fighting. See Air force (History (World War I)).
In World War II (1939-1945), tanks and aeroplanes were able to restore mobility to warfare. The Germans developed the blitzkring (lighting war). Tanks and bombers first blasted great holes in enemy defences. Then infantry pured through the gaps and carried the war deep into enemy territory. See World War II (The invasion of Poland).
The war also saw the first use of armies in large-scale airborne operations. The Germans launched the first paratroop invasion in May 1941, when they seized the Island of Crete. The largest airborne operation took place in September 1944, when three division of Allied paratroops dropped behind the German lines in a partially successful attempt to capture bridges across the Rhine River. The largest amphibious attack in history occurred on June 6, 1944, when Allied armies landed in Normandy, in northern France.
During World War II, armies brought the military art of logistics (supply and services) to a high point of development. They organized huge commands that provided food, clothing, ammunition, weapons, supplies, and transportation for combat troops (see logistics). The Allied victory in World War II resulted partly from superiority in logistics and in civilian industrial production.
Armies in the nuclear age. World War II ended shortly after US warplanes dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombings not only led to Japan’s surrender, but also marked the beginning of the nuclear age.
Nuclear weapons brought sweeping changes to warfare. At first, however, some military experts doubted the value of these weapons on the battlefield. The earliest types of nuclear warheads could be delivered only by bomber planes flying at very high altitudes. This type of delivery could not be used on the battlefield and could be considered only for strategic targets. By the early 1960’s, armies had developed nuclear cannons and short-range guided and ballistic missiles. These weapons changed the thinking of many experts about the tactical use of nuclear weapons. Such cannons and missiles could launch nuclear warheads at a large body of troops, a supply dump, or any other target within the weapons’ range.
The world’s major armies underwent changes to make them less vulnerable to attacks by nuclear weapons. For example, large combat formations were reorganized into small highly mobile forces. In a nuclear war, these forces could be scattered in concealed positions near the enemy. They would unite briefly to seize an objective and then split up again. Army logistics also were changed. In a nuclear war, supplies would be stored far from combat areas and delivered to the front by cargo planes and large helicopters.
Since World War II, the fear of starting a nuclear war seems to have helped prevent major armies from using nuclear weapon. As a result, only conventional wars have been fought during the nuclear age. The first major conflict was the Korean War, which began in 1950. large armies did most of the fighting in this war. (See also Korean War).
During the 1960’s and 1970’s, the number, variety and power of nuclear weapons increased dramatically. But armies still used conventional tactics and weapons in war. For example, the United States Army relied heavily on conventional warfare tactics during its involvement in the Vietnam War, from 1965 to 1973. These tactics were the most effective way to fight guerillas in the jungles of Vietnam. (See Vietnam War).
Arab and Israeli forces fought conventional wars in 1956, 1967, and 1973. The armies of Iran and Iraq also fought a long conventional war, including some use of poisonous gas from 1980 to 1988. the tactics used by both sides resembled those of World War II, in which aircraft and tanks spearheaded attacks and were followed into battle by infantry. In 1991, during the Persian Gulf War, the armies of a coalition led by the United States launched an offencive against Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait. (See Persian Gulf War)
Battles: Battle of Agincourt, Battle of Austerlitz, Battle of Balaklave, Battle of Bannockburn, Bataan Peninsular, Battle of Blenheim, Battle of the Bunker, Corregidor, Battle of Crecy, Dunkerque, El-Alamein, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Hastings, Iwo Jima, Marathon, Okinawa, Battle of Poitiers, Saipan, Battle of Stalingrad, Thermopylae. Battle of Verdun, Battle of Vimy Ridge, and Battle of Waterloo.
History: Archery, Battering ram, Blunderbuss, Bloomerang, Catapult, Commando, Flintlock, Foreign Legion, Greek fire, Gunpowder, Harquebus, Hussars, Janissaries, Legion, Mercenary, Musket, Powder horn, Reichswehr, Shot tower, Sling, Spear, Swiss Guard, Tomahawk and Zouaves.
Organization: Airborne troops, Armour, Artillery, Cavalry, Chaplain, Infantry, and Intelligence
Weapons: Ammunition, Bayonet, Bozooka, Bullet, Cannon, Carbine, Cartridge, Explosive, Firearm, Flame thrower, Garand rifle, Grenade, Guided missile, Gun, Handgun, Machine gun, Mortar, Nuclear weapon, Rifle, Rocket, Sniperscope and Tank.
Other related articles: Air force, Camouflage, Conscription, Court-martial, (Decorations, medal and orders), Guerrilla warfare, Helmet, Insignia, Logistics, Marine, Mine warfare, Navy, Prisoner of war, and war.
Army is the branch of a nation’s armed forces that is trained to fight on hand. An army consists of ground troops, their weapons and equipment, and military bases. In some countries, the largest units of the army are themselves called armies. These units consist of infantry, armoured tanks, and artillery, plus support troops who handle TRANSPORT, MEDICAL CARE, AND OTHER RESPONSIBILITIES.
Almost every nation has an army. But armies vary greatly in makeup and fighting strength, based largely on a nation’s technology. Nearly all the industrialized countries have an army with well-equipped infantry and the latest types of tanks and artillery. Such armies also have hundreds of helicopters, personnel carriers, and short-range guided missiles. These armies combine high mobility with tremendous firepower. Developing nations, on the other hand, must rely heavily on specially trained infantry and on guerilla warfare and similar hit-and-run tactics. Most of these nations have limited industries with which to manufacture weapons and other military equipment, and must import arms.
Countries also differ in the way they raise and maintain their army. Some nations use conscription, in which certain individuals are selected for duty. Others have universal military service, which requires all qualified men and women in a certain age range to serve. Still other nations have a completely volunteer army.
Most nations divide their army into a regular army and an army reserve. The regular army consists of professional soldiers. They continually receive training and are always on active duty and ready for combat. The army reserve, called the national guard or militia in some countries, consists of civilians who receive training periodically. Reservists are on inactive duty except during their training and may be called to active duty in an emergency.
For thousands of years, warfare consisted almost entirely of battles between armies. Many major land battles changed the course of history. In time, the power of navies – and later of aeroplanes and guided missiles – ended the dominance of armies. An army could no longer fight effectively if the enermy controlled the sea and the air. The development of nuclear weapons in the mid-1900’s changed the role of armies even further. Today, the main striking force of the most powerful nations consists of long-range bomber planes and guided missiles. These planes and missiles are capable of delivering nuclear weapons. However, armies continue to play vital roles in both war and peace.
The missions of armies
In war, a nation uses its army to conquer enemy territory and to defend itself from attack. In peacetime, an army can help prevent war. It also aids civilians in certain emergencies.
Conquest. A nation may seek to take over territory held by an enemy. The attacker’s tanks and other armoured vehicles invade the enermy’s territory, with planes and artillery supporting the advance. Other planes drop airborne troops behind enemy lines, and helicopters fly in commandos to seize certain key positions. Later, mechanized infantry sweeps in and occupies the conquered territory.
Defence. An army is trained or both offensive and defensive combat operations. But some units may be assigned to fight only in case of an enemy attack. In such cases, fortifications are defended chiefly by infantry and artillery. Mobile units are held in reserve to counterattack.
Prevention of war. A powerful nation may sometimes station troops in politically troubled regions or in areas threatened by attack. A show of military strength may help prevent war. In 1965, for example, the United States sent troops to the Dominican Republican to maintain order after rebels tried to take over that country.
The development of tactical nuclear weapons in the 1960’s gave armies another important peacekeeping function. The word tactical refers to certain nuclear weapons that are used only in battle, rather than in areas far behind enemy lines. An invaded nation might counterattack with tactical nuclear weapons. Its counterattack could lead to expanded use of these weapons and even to an all-out nuclear war. The fear of such a catastrophe might deter a nation from invading an enemy.
Civilian aid may be provided by an army in various emergencies. For examples, medical personnel and other army specialists may be sent to care for VICTIMS OF A DISASTER SUCH AS AN EARTHQUAKE OR A FLOOD. Armyunits may also help local police control riots and other disorders.
Repression. An army may be used to put down a civilian uprising. This happened in 1956 when Soviet troops crushed the Hungarian revolt. In 1989, the Chinese people’s Liberation Army helped the government quell the student democracy movement.
The world’s major armies
As army’s ranking among the armies of the worlds is based on its overall fighting strength. In general, fighting strength depends on the number of troops on active duty. But an army’s size does not necessarily reflect its actual strength. For example, a small army with tactical nuclear weapons may have greater striking power than a large army with outdated weapons.
The Chinese Army is the world’s largest army. It has about 600,000 people in its reserve and about 1 million in its armed militia.
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Army is made up of troops from the former Soviet Union. Before its breakup, the Soviet Union had the world’s second largest army. About 1 ½ million troops were on active duty. Most of them were based in the western part of the Soviet Union, in Eastern Europe and along the Soviet border with China. The Soviet Army had both volunteers and conscripts. Reserves totaled about 3 million.
In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up into a number of independent states, most of which formed a loose association known as the Commonwealth of Independent States. The CIS took command of the Soviet army. In 1992, the states began establishing their own armies, absorbing troops from what had been the Soviet army.
The United States Army has about 730,000 troops on active duty and about 1 million in the reserve and the National Guard. All are members.
The German Army has about 330,000 people on active duty and about 860,000 in the reserve. Both volunteers and conscripts serve in the German Army.
The French Army has about 280,000 members on active duty. France has about 330,000 members in its army reserve. The French Army has both volunteers and conscripts.
The Army of the United Kingdom has about 145,000 troops on active duty, 188,600 people in the reserves, and about 71,300 members of the territorial army. All are volunteers.
Other major armies include those of Egypt, India, Iraq, North Korea, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and Vietnam. Each of these armies has more than 300,000 troops on active duty. The armies purchase weapons and equipment from the world’s major powers, but none has tactical nuclear weapons.
India has a well-trained and equipped army with 1,200,000 members. Pakistan has an army of about 450,000 people and maintains a large reserve force. The South African army has 75,000 members, of whom 55,000 are conscripted. The Australian arm is small about 30,000 people, with 25,800 reserves. All the people in the army are volunteers. The 6,000 members of the New Zealand army are also volunteers.
History
Ancient armies developed of civilizations grew in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Asia, and in the Nile Valley of Africa. As early as 3200 BC, the Babylonians had built a regular army of spearmen and bowmen. About 2500 BC, the Sumerians, who lived in lands south of Babylonia used the first war chariots. Small wild asses and later, horses drew these chariots. By the 700’s BC, the Assyrians had organized armies equipped with spears and battering-rams.
In the 600’s BC, the ancient Greeks introduced the phalanx, probably the first important tactical formation in history. In this formation, heavily armoured spearmen stood four to fifty rows deep in a solid rectangle. Although it could be used in attack, the phalanx was essentially a defensive formation.
The mightiest conqueror of the period was cyrus the Great of Persia. In the 300’s BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia, the next world conqueror, organized the first known military supply system.
The Romans developed the next great tactical formation. In the early 300’s BC, they devised the legion (see Legion). This rectangular formation had greater flexibility than the phalanx. It consisted of three lines of small phalanxes called maniples or, later, cohorts. The Romans conquered Carthage in 146 BC and built a greater empire. They were also great military engineers. Julius Caesar’s armies built road, briges and forts throughout much of Europe.
In China, another civilization grew up in isolation from the empires of Europe and western Asia. The Chinese invented gunpowder in the AD 900’s, several hundred years before it became known in Europe. But gunpowder did not become an important weapon of war for the Chinese, because they did not use it in artillery except possibly in rockets.
Armies in the Middles Ages. After the Roman Empire collapsed by AD 476, Europe had no large regular armies for several hundred years. All able-bodied free men in the tribes that overrun the empire were also warriors. The tradition of a militia, citizen (as opposed to professional) soldiers, developed at this time.
During the Middle Ages, the basis of society was a military relationship. Landowners organized their own personal armies from among their workers. These part-time soldiers fought for limited periods in home defence armies effectively. They began to hire mercenaries by promising booty or pay. These mercenary soldiers use crossbows and other weapons they had learned to handle in their homelands. They sometimes deserted their employer at the height of a battle if they could get higher pay from the enemy.
The best-known mercenaries of the late Middle Ages were the Swiss pikemen and the Genoese crossbowmen. In a phalanx formation, the pikemen could throw back cavalry charges while the crossbowmen fired darts into the enermy’s lines. In the 1300’s, mercenaries in Gemany, Italy, and Switzerland were formed in the first military companies. The company later became the basic unit in many armies.
During the 1300’s, the Ottoman Turks became the first people since the Romans to build an army of full-time professional troops. These Ottoman troops, called Janissaries, served in peacetime as well as in war. In 1445, King Charles VII of France hired companies of mercenaries on a permanent basis, and set up the first regular army in Europe since Roman times.
Many modern military organizations trace their origin t o the German Landsknechte (infantry) and the Reiter (cavalry) of the late 1400’s. The Germans based their organization on the English mercenaries known as Free Companies, and on the Swiss mercenaries. The Germans also organized the first supply units for their combat troops. Early armies had lived off the land did not have separate supply organizations. In the 1500’s, the German cavalry formed a quartermaster office to find quarters and food.
Gunpower hastened the development of army organization and tactics. The use of gunpower in gun began in Europe during the 1300’s. English soldiers used first cannos in the Battles of Crecy in 1346. These cannons fired stones and were clumsy and difficult to move. As gunpowder gained wider use, armies developed cannons powerful enough to shatter thick castle walls.
The Rise of Modern Armies. By the late 1600’s, infantry armed with the new socket bayonet and the musket could defend themselves against cavalry charges. They did not have to rely on pikemen. Three rows of soldiers stood in ranks, shoulder to shoulder, in a formation called the line. Infantrymen fired volleys at close range from their smoothbore muskets.
The obligation of all men to serve in wartime had disappeared almost everywhere by the early 1600’s. But Sweden kept this custom throughout the Middle Ages and King Gustavus Adolphus used conscription to recruit troops for the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). He gave his army greater mobility by equipping it with lighter weapons and increased firepower. His force is sometimes called the first modern army. (see Gustavus, Adolphus, and Thirty Year’s War).
During the 1700’s, most governments continued to build their armies by voluntary recruitment, especially among the poor and unemployed. Armies became professional groups of well-trained foot soldiers supported by artillery and cavalry. Most countries followed certain rules in warfare. Campaigns took place only in good weather. The troops went into quarters in winter and did not fight again until spring. They tried to attain a favourable position before they attacked the enemy. Commanders who were caught in a poor position often withdrew instead of fighting to the finish.
In the mid-1700’s, Federick the Great of Prussia introduced greater mobility to warfare. When his enemies outnumbered him, he struck quickly and unexpectedly. Frederick had to fight wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attack him.
The growth in the size of armies made necessary an organization to control troops from a distance. Only a military genius such as Napoleon could personally direct many military units in the field. From 1840 on, railways began to spread across Europe. The Prussians realized that they could move armies much more quickly by rail and this made more accurate long-range planning possible. Gerhard von Scharnhorst of the Prusian Army developed the modern general staff that planned future military operations.
During the 1800’s, the Industrial Revolution led to the mass production of weapons and ammunition. It later brought the invention of the aeroplane and motorized vehicles. Commanders could direct armies in separated battlefronts by radio and other means of communication.
Armies in the two world wars. When World War I, began in 1914, the machine gun became the dominant weapon on the battlefield. The use of machine guns made free movement impossible on the western front. Both sides adopted trench warfare. Infantry dug in to hold their positions when they could not advance against the enemy. Railways carried millions of soldiers to the fighting fronts. Motor trucks hauled suppliers from railheads to the front lines. See World War I.
Field commanders tried to end trench warfare and regain tactical mobility. They shelled and bombed the enermy lines and followed with mass bayonet attacks. But for three years, most of these assaults failed. The trenches of the western front remained almost attack-proof. Army commanders found a solution, but they used it improperly and too late. The British built an armoured tracked vehicle with a petrol engine and create the first military tank (see tank). Tanks eventually replaced horse calvary. During the war, aeroplanes were used for the first time to support ground fighting. See Air force (History (World War I)).
In World War II (1939-1945), tanks and aeroplanes were able to restore mobility to warfare. The Germans developed the blitzkring (lighting war). Tanks and bombers first blasted great holes in enemy defences. Then infantry pured through the gaps and carried the war deep into enemy territory. See World War II (The invasion of Poland).
The war also saw the first use of armies in large-scale airborne operations. The Germans launched the first paratroop invasion in May 1941, when they seized the Island of Crete. The largest airborne operation took place in September 1944, when three division of Allied paratroops dropped behind the German lines in a partially successful attempt to capture bridges across the Rhine River. The largest amphibious attack in history occurred on June 6, 1944, when Allied armies landed in Normandy, in northern France.
During World War II, armies brought the military art of logistics (supply and services) to a high point of development. They organized huge commands that provided food, clothing, ammunition, weapons, supplies, and transportation for combat troops (see logistics). The Allied victory in World War II resulted partly from superiority in logistics and in civilian industrial production.
Armies in the nuclear age. World War II ended shortly after US warplanes dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombings not only led to Japan’s surrender, but also marked the beginning of the nuclear age.
Nuclear weapons brought sweeping changes to warfare. At first, however, some military experts doubted the value of these weapons on the battlefield. The earliest types of nuclear warheads could be delivered only by bomber planes flying at very high altitudes. This type of delivery could not be used on the battlefield and could be considered only for strategic targets. By the early 1960’s, armies had developed nuclear cannons and short-range guided and ballistic missiles. These weapons changed the thinking of many experts about the tactical use of nuclear weapons. Such cannons and missiles could launch nuclear warheads at a large body of troops, a supply dump, or any other target within the weapons’ range.
The world’s major armies underwent changes to make them less vulnerable to attacks by nuclear weapons. For example, large combat formations were reorganized into small highly mobile forces. In a nuclear war, these forces could be scattered in concealed positions near the enemy. They would unite briefly to seize an objective and then split up again. Army logistics also were changed. In a nuclear war, supplies would be stored far from combat areas and delivered to the front by cargo planes and large helicopters.
Since World War II, the fear of starting a nuclear war seems to have helped prevent major armies from using nuclear weapon. As a result, only conventional wars have been fought during the nuclear age. The first major conflict was the Korean War, which began in 1950. large armies did most of the fighting in this war. (See also Korean War).
During the 1960’s and 1970’s, the number, variety and power of nuclear weapons increased dramatically. But armies still used conventional tactics and weapons in war. For example, the United States Army relied heavily on conventional warfare tactics during its involvement in the Vietnam War, from 1965 to 1973. These tactics were the most effective way to fight guerillas in the jungles of Vietnam. (See Vietnam War).
Arab and Israeli forces fought conventional wars in 1956, 1967, and 1973. The armies of Iran and Iraq also fought a long conventional war, including some use of poisonous gas from 1980 to 1988. the tactics used by both sides resembled those of World War II, in which aircraft and tanks spearheaded attacks and were followed into battle by infantry. In 1991, during the Persian Gulf War, the armies of a coalition led by the United States launched an offencive against Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait. (See Persian Gulf War)
Battles: Battle of Agincourt, Battle of Austerlitz, Battle of Balaklave, Battle of Bannockburn, Bataan Peninsular, Battle of Blenheim, Battle of the Bunker, Corregidor, Battle of Crecy, Dunkerque, El-Alamein, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Hastings, Iwo Jima, Marathon, Okinawa, Battle of Poitiers, Saipan, Battle of Stalingrad, Thermopylae. Battle of Verdun, Battle of Vimy Ridge, and Battle of Waterloo.
History: Archery, Battering ram, Blunderbuss, Bloomerang, Catapult, Commando, Flintlock, Foreign Legion, Greek fire, Gunpowder, Harquebus, Hussars, Janissaries, Legion, Mercenary, Musket, Powder horn, Reichswehr, Shot tower, Sling, Spear, Swiss Guard, Tomahawk and Zouaves.
Organization: Airborne troops, Armour, Artillery, Cavalry, Chaplain, Infantry, and Intelligence
Weapons: Ammunition, Bayonet, Bozooka, Bullet, Cannon, Carbine, Cartridge, Explosive, Firearm, Flame thrower, Garand rifle, Grenade, Guided missile, Gun, Handgun, Machine gun, Mortar, Nuclear weapon, Rifle, Rocket, Sniperscope and Tank.
Other related articles: Air force, Camouflage, Conscription, Court-martial, (Decorations, medal and orders), Guerrilla warfare, Helmet, Insignia, Logistics, Marine, Mine warfare, Navy, Prisoner of war, and war.
AIR FORCE
Air force is the branch of a nation’s armed forces responsible for military operations in the air. An air force consists of pilots and other personnel, aircraft, support equipment and military bases. Some air forces also have guided missiles and spacecraft.
Most countries have some type of air force. More powerful nations have an independent air force equal in rank to the other branches of the nation’s armed forces. These countries usually also have an air force unit in their army and navy. Many smaller, less powerful nations have an air unit as part of their army or navy.
AIR FORCES DIFFER GREATLY IN SIZE AND FIGHTING STRENGTH, DEPENDING ON A NATION’S WEALTH, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATIONAL DEFEND NEEDS. THE LARGE AIR FORCES OF INDUSTRIAL NATIONS HAVE MODERN BOMBERS, FIGHTERS, TRANSPORT PLANES, HELICOPTERS AND OTHER AIRCRAFT. Most developing nations cannot afford the advanced technology required to build a modern air force. But some have assembled relatively strong air forces through loans and trade with industrial nations. Many smaller developing nations have air forces that consist of older aircraft.
The United States and Russia have the most powerful and complex air forces. These forces include thousands of aircraft and long-range missile, some with nuclear
Warheads. Other powerful nations, including China, France, and the United Kingdom (UK), also have such missiles.
Until the development of aeroplanes and guided missiles in the 1990’s, nations relied on armies and navies for military power. The operations of these forces, however, are limited by land and sea barriers. Today, armies and navies remain extremely important. But the main striking force of the most powerful nations consists of aeroplanes and guided missiles.
The role of air forces.
A nation’s air force may have several different roles depending on the country’s security needs. Air forces within an army or navy support the operations of that branch. A navy’s air force, for example, may operate attack and reconnaissance (observation) planes from aircraft carriers to obtain information about operations in enemy territory. A navy’s air force may also patrol its country’s coastline. An air force that serves as a separate military branch, however, usually has several roles related to establishing control of the air. These roles include (1) COMBAT, (2) DEFENCE AND (3) TRANSPORT.
COMBAR MISSIONS involve fighting directly against an enemy force. The two chief types of combat missions are strategic and tactical. In strategic missions, air forces operate over long distances, usually travelling from one continent to another. The most common strategic missions involve attacked with bombs and long-range missiles against specific targets in enemy cities and industrial areas. Strategic attacks are designed to destroy the enemy’s ability and desire to fight.
Tactical missions are short or medium-range operations carried out in cooperation with ground or sea forces in battle. Such missions include attacks on enemy ground forces and counter air tactical missions. In these missions, fighter planes may attack enemy aircraft to gain control of the air over a battle area. In interdiction attacks, aircrafts strike transportation networks and other targets behind enemy lines. Such attacks prevent enemy forces and supplies from reaching the battlefield.
DEFENCE MISSIONS protect a nation’s territory from enemy attack. Advanced air forces use radar stations and satellites to detect surprise attacks by enemy bombers or missiles. In case of such an attack, an air force uses missiles and fighter planes to shoot down enemy bombers and missiles.
The threat of a counterattack can also serve as part of a nation’s air defences, especially among nations that have nuclear weapons. Nations may avoid launching a nuclear attack because of their fear of a counterattack.
TRANSPORT MISSIONS, also called airlifts, support a nation’s combat operations by moving troops and equipment quickly by air. In a strategic airlift, aircraft transport troops and equipment over long distances. A tactical airlift provides air support to battlefield operations. For example, aircraft may drop paratroopers and supplies in a battle area or behind enemy lines. In peacetime, air forces may transport food and other supplies to areas struck by disaster.
OTHER MISSIONS include reconnaissance and air rescue. Reconnaissance missions gather military information using visual observation or cameras, radar, and other sensing devices aboard aircraft and satellites. Air rescue missions use small planes or helicopters to rescue people trapped in dangerous areas.
The organization of air forces
The leader of an independent air force may be a chief of staff or air marshal and hold the rank of general. Air forces of smaller countries often come under the command of the army or navy.
The squadron is the basic administrative unit of air forces. A squadron usually consists of aircraft of one type or model. Most fighter and attack squadrons have 18 to 24 assigned aircraft, which are usually grouped into smaller units of 2 to 4 planes called flights. Bomber squadrons typically have from 10 to 19 assigned aircraft. Two or more squadrons form units called groups or wings. In large air force, these units may combine to form larger divisions or commands.
Aircraft and missiles.
Aircraft are usually classified by their function. The main types of aircraft are (1) attack and fighter aircraft, (2) bombers, (3) transport aircraft and (4) reconnaissance aircraft.
Attack and fighter aircraft are designed for speed and manoeuvrability in combat. They usually have a crew of one or two and carry missiles or bombs, depending on their mission. These aircraft attack enemy planes and ground targets or defend against air attacks. Bombers are usually large, medium-range or long-range planes that carry a combination of bombs and guided missiles for striking strategic targets. Only a few nations with powerful air forces have bombers. Bomber crews range in size from about four to six people.
Bombers are usually large, medium-range or long-range planes that carry a combination of bombs and guided missiles for striking strategic targets. Only a few nations with powerful air forces have bombers. Bomber crews range in size from about to six people.
Transport aircraft carry troops or cargo. The crew of a typical transport plane includes a pilot, copilot, navigator, flight engineer and one or more loadmasters responsible for the cargo or passengers.
Reconnaissance aircraft carry cameras or electronic sensors to gather information about enemy forces. Reconnaissance aircraft include both aeroplanes specifically designed for reconnaissance and modified versions of other aircraft.
Other aircraft include trainers, tankers, and helicopters. Trainers are used to train pilots. Tankers refuel other aircraft in flight. Helicopters serve a variety of functions. Some, called gunships, carry guns and missiles and are used in combat. Others transport troops and equipment over short distances.
Missiles used by air forces may be launched from the ground or from aircraft. Ground-launched strategic missiles include intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM’s) and intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBM’s). ICBM’s can deliver a nuclear warhead to a target up to 15,000 kilometres away. IRBM’s can reach from about 2,700 to 5,500 kilometres. In some nations, such as in the United States, the air force is responsible for ICBM’s. But in others, including China and Russia, these missiles fall under a separate command. Air forces defend against ballistic missile attacks with ground-launch antiballistic missiles (ABM’s).
Air-launched missiles include both strategic and tactical missiles. Bombers carry air-launched strategic missiles such as the cruise missile, that can hit targets hundreds of kilometers away. Fighter and attack aircraft and helicopters fire tactical air-to-air missiles (AAM’s) at enemy aircraft and air-to-surface missiles (ASM’s) at ground targets.
Major air forces of the world.
The power of an air force depends on the quality of its TECHNOLOGY, TRAINING, AND EQUIPMENT. The world’s most powerful air forces have advanced aircraft, well-trained crews, and efficient maintenance and supply systems. They include the air forces of the United States, Russia, China, France, India, The United Kingdom, Germany, and Israel. After the Soviet Union broke apart in 1991, Russia claimed most of the aircraft that had belonged to the massive Soviet Air Force. Other small but important air forces include those of Italy, North Korea, Turkey, and Ukraine.
The United States Air Force has about 1,700 fighter and attack aircraft and about 230 bombers. The air force also operates several satellite and radar systems. It has about 420,000 members, along with 78,000 in the Air Force Reserve. An additional 118,000 people serve in Air National Guard units, which are administered by the states. The US Air Force commands about 550 ICBM’s but no IRBM’s. Under a 1987 treaty, the United State and the Soviet Union agreed to eliminate their IRBM’s.
The US Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard all have their own air force units. The US Navy has the world’s largest air arm with about 1,700 combat aircraft. The US Army air unit includes about 1,700 combat aircraft.
The Russian Air Force has about 3,700 combat aircraft, including about 3,200 fighters. The air force has about 300,000 members. A separate strategic force has responsibility for about 1,200 ICBM’s. Another force for space operations launches and operates military satellites. The Russian Navy aviation branch has about 900 combat aircraft.
Several other farmer Soviet republics control ICBM’s and planes that had belonged to the Soviet Air Force. Ukraine, controls about 165 ICBM’s and over 900 combat aircraft, including more than 100 bombers. Kazakhstan has about 100 ICBM’s. Belarus has about 80 ICBM’s.
The Chinese Air Force has about 4,500 fighter and attack planes and about 470 bombers. Many of its planes are based on Russian designs. About 470,000 people serve in the air force. China’s Navy operates an additional 880 combat aircraft. China also has 14 ICBM’s and over 90 IRBM’s under a separate strategic force.
The French Air Force has about 800 combat aircraft, mostly fighter and attack planes. The force has about 92,000 members. A separate strategic air force operates about 60 bombers equipped with IRBM’s. The French navy has about 100 combat aircraft.
The Indian Air Force has about 800 combat planes, including about 400 fights and more than 30 attack helicopters and it has a large arsenal of surface-to-air missiles. About 110,000 people serve in the Indian Air Force. India’s naval air force has about 60 additional combat aircraft and 75 armed helicopters.
The Unite Kingdom’s Air Force, called the Royal Air Force (RAF), has about 690 combat aircraft, mostly fighter and attack aeroplanes. It has about 80,000 members. The Royal Navy’s air arm about 50 combat aircraft and approximately 150 armed helicopters.
The German Air Force, called the Luftwaffe, includes about 650 attack and fighter aircraft, with about 120 additional combat aircraft in the navy’s air unit. About 96,000 people serve in the Luftaffe.
The Israeli Air Force has about 660 fighter and attack aircraft and about 32,000 members. It is one of the largest and most capable air force in the Middle East, with highly experienced pilots.
History
Early air force. The first air force was established by France in 1794, during a war against several other European nations. The air force flew large ballons filled with hot air or gas. The French used the ballons to observe movements of enemy troops.
The first air attack took place in 1849. Austria controlled much of Italy at that time and the people of Venice revolted. The Australians sent unmanned balloons carrying time bombs over the city. Some of the bombs exploded as planned. But the wind changed direction and blew several balloons back over the Austrian troops, where the rest of the bombs exploded.
During the American Civil War (1861 – 1865), both the Union and Confederate armies used balloons. The Union Army organized a balloon corps to direct artillery fire and observe Confederate troop movements. Almost every major army in the world soon established a balloon corps.
Balloons became much less important in warfare after Orville and Wilbur Wright made the world’s first aeroplane fight in 1903. By 1909, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States had purchased planes for their armed forced. In 1912, the UK established the Royal Flying Corps as the air arm of Royal Flying Corps as the air arm of the Royal Army and Navy. In 1918, the corps became the Royal Air Force, the first independent air force.
World War I began in 1914. In the war, the Allies, who included France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United State, fought the Central Powers, who included Germany and Ausria – Hungary. At that time, most aeroplanes flew at a maximum speed of about 120 kilometres per hour. They could reach an altitude of about 3,000 metres. By 1918, when the war ended, the maximum speed of aircraft had reached about 190 kilometres per hour, and maximum altitude had more than doubled. Planes also had become much more manoeuvrable.
At the beginning of the war, the fighting nations used planes only for observing enemy ground used planes only for observing enemy ground movements. Aircraft soon began to exchange gunfire, but many could not shoot forward because the plane’s propeller was in front. Bullets might shatter the blades of the propeller. In 1915, a Dutch designer, Anthony Fokker, developed a machine gun for the Germany that fired only when the propeller blades were not blocking the muzzle. The Allies began to use a similar gun in 1917.
During the war, pilots fought air battles called dogfights and fliers who shot down five or more enemy planes became known as aces. Toward the end of the war, battles between squadrons of planes replaced most combat between single pilots. Early in the war, pilots had dropped bombs by hand. Later, they used mechanical devices to release the bombs.
In September 1918, American officer Billy Mitchell directed the largest air assault of the war. He commander about 1,500 Allied aircraft in a mission over St. Mihiel in France, where the Germans had advanced. The Allied planes gained control of the air, dropped bombs behind the German lines, and attacked enemy ground forces. Two months later, the Allies won the war.
The growth of national air forces. World War I had resulted in the creation of a number of air services. In 1915, the government of British India asked the Australian government to send an air force to Mesopotamia (now chiefly part of Iraqi). The government sent a group of Australian airmen, known as the first Hall Flight, to take part in operations against Turkish forces in Mesopotamia. In 1916, the government set up No. 1 Squadron of the Australian Flying Corps (AFC). After World War I, the Australian government disbanded the AFC, but replaced it with a temporary force, the Australia Aviation Corps, which the army controlled. In 1921, the government established the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as a separate arm of the services.
Despite the success of military aviation during the war, however, most military did not realize its importance. In the United States, Mitchell became so bitter in his criticism of the US defence progranmme that he was court-martialled.
In the 1920’s, most nations reduced the strength of their air forces. A few air force officers such as the RAF’s Lord Trenched worked to improve organization and training. Trenched was the UK’s chief of the air staff from 1919 to 1929. As a result of his work, the RAF developed into an efficient force. During the 1920’s and early 1930’s, France, Germany, Italy and Sweden formed independent air forces.
World War II. Air power played a vital role in deciding the outcome of World War II. In the war, Germany, Italy, Japan and other Axis powers fought the Allies, who included Canada, China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The war began in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland. The Germans used a new
Maethod of warfare called blitzkrieg (lighting war). Germany’s air force, the Luftwaffe, bombed Polish troops, destroyed airfields, and struck at key cities, highways, and railways. On the ground, tanks and infantry overwhelmed the Polish forces. Between April and June 1940, Germany attacked and defeated Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium and France.
The Germans planned to invade the UK neir xt, but first they had no defeat the Royal Air Force. In July 1940, the Luftwaffe started to bomb British ships and ports. German air raids on London began in September. The RAF was outnumbered, but it had better planes and pilots than the Luftwaffe. The British also had developed radar and a decoding device that enabled them to read coded German messages. Both developments were carefully guarded secrets that helped the RAF intercept Luftwaffe raids. By October, the RAF had shot down more than 1,700 attacking planes and had lost about 900 of its own s Germany postponed its plans to invade the UK, but air raids on British cities continued.
The United States entered the war on Dec 8, 1941, the clay after about 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the US fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The attack destroyed or damaged 21 ships and more than 300 planes, temporarily crippling the Pacific Fleet and Hawaii’s air defence.
In mid-1942, American airpower halted Japanese advances in the Pacific in two important battles at sea. In the Battle of the Coral Sea, in May, planes based on air-craft carriers did all the fighting. The opposing warships did not fire a shot at one another, Japan lost more planes, but fewer ships, than the United States lost in the battle. Neither side won, but the battle prevented a Japanese assault on New Guinea. A month later, in the Battle of Midway, Japan lost 4 aircraft carrier and more than 200 planes. The Unite States lost 1 carrier and about 150 planes. The battle blunted Japan’s naval strength for the rest of the war and ended the threat of a Japanese attack on Hawaii and the United States.
By mid-1942, Japan had captured large parts of China and had cut off the country’s main supply routes. To help China continue fighting Japan, Allied forces flew supplies from India to China over the Himalaya, the world’s tallest mountain range. This dangerous route was called the “Hump”. During this airlift, which lasted almost three years, the Allies carried about 600,000 metric tons of supplies to China.
The Allies attacked Germany in 1943, when the UK and the United States started a bombing offensive that lasted almost until the end of the war. The RAF bombed German cities at night and American planes attacked enemy industries during the day. In 1944, the Luftwaffe began to use Jet fighter planes. These planes could fly about 885 kilometres per hour, compared with about 640 kilometres per hour for propeller-driven fighters. Germany also developed the first guided missiles, the V-1 and V-2. In 1944 and 1945, the Germans fired more than 12,000 missiles at enemy cities. But these technological advances came too late to affect the outcome of the war. Germany surrendered in May 1945.
In August 1945, American B-29 bombers dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombers had flown from Tinian Island, more than 2,000 kilometres away. Japan surrendered in September, and the war ended.
The development of jet aircraft in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s greatly increased the range and speed of attacking planes. In 1939, a German Heinkel He 178 made the first successful jet-powered flight. By 1944, Germany had developed the Messerschmitt Me 262, the first jet to fly combat missions. The first American jet plane, the Bell XP-59, flew in 1942 but was little used in World War II. After the war, several nations, including the UK, the Soviet Union, and the United States, rapidly developed jet-powered air forces. Soon each of these nations operated a fleet of jet fighters and long-range bombers. By the late 1950’s, France and China also began developing jet-powered air forces.
Air forces in the nuclear age. The United States emerge as the most powerful nation at the end of World War II. It was the only nation with atomic weapons and the aircraft to use them. But the Soviet Union soon began to challenge the United States, competing for power and international influence in a struggle known as the Cold War. In 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb. Several other nations have developed nuclear weapons since then.
The Soviet Union successfully tested its first ICBM in 1957, several months before the first successfully United States test. The Soviet Union also launched the first space satellite in 1957. The United States and the Soviet Union competed for supremacy in missiles and space. They also developed antiballistic missiles (ABM’s) designed to destroy enemy missiles in flight. To provide warning of a missile attack, the two nations set up missile detection systems on the ground and in space.
By the late 1960’s, the number of missiles and nuclear warheads had grown alarmingly large. In 1969, the United States and the Soviet Union began a series of conferences in an effort to limit country’s missile strength. After several more conferences in the 1970’s and 1980’s, they agreed to eliminate their IRBM’s.
Many smaller nations established strong air forces during the 1980’s by obtaining aircraft from the United States or the Soviet Union. These nations included Finland, Hungary, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
The Soviet Union began withdrawing its force from Eastern Europe in 1990. In 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to reduce their long-range missiles and bombers, including their ICBM forces, by about third. They also ended a continuous alert for long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons and took other steps to reduce the threat of a nuclear air attack. This alert had been in effect in the United States since 1957. In late 1991, the Soviet Union broke up. These developments reduced the threat of nuclear war and the need for huge armed forces. As a result, major air forces planned large cuts in personnel and equipment in the mid-1990’s.
Air forces in limited wars. Fear of a massive nuclear was helped prevent nations with nuclear weapons from using them. In all wars fought since World War II, nations restricted the weapons from using them. In all wars fought since World War II, nations restricted the weapons they used, the targets they attacked, and the areas of battle in order to avoid a nuclear conflict, in such wars, calls limited wars, air forces played an important role.
The Korean War (1950 – 1953) brought the first combat between jet aircraft. The United States and other members of the United Nations aided South Korea. United States military leaders limited attacks on military targets, but aeroplanes often fought each other. As many as 150 jet fighters took part in some air battles. Each Side adopted the principle of asylum, which allowed aircraft to withdraw from the battle zone without being pursued. Neither side won complete victory in this war.
During the Vietnam War (1957 -1975), the United States supported South Vietnam, and the Soviet Union and China backed North Vietnam and the Viet Gong rebels of South Vietnam. From 1965 to 1968, the US Air Force and the air arm of the US Navy conducted frequent bombing raids against North Vietnam and later attacked targets in South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. The US Air Force used helicopter gunships to locate and attack enemy forces in the jungles and mountains. United States helicopters also rescued downed aviators, transported the wounded, and carried supplies and troops. In 1969, the United States began withdrawing its troops from Vietnam. The United States removed the last of its troops and stopped its air attacks in 1973. Two years later, the war ended with a North Vietnamese and Viet Cong victory.
Wars in the Middle East. In 1967, the Israeli Air Force destroyed most of the air forces of Egypt. Jordan and Syria in the Six-Day War. Egypt rebuilt its air force and in 1973, staged a surprise attack with Syria against Israel. For a brief period, Egypt established control of the skies. Israel’s airpower, however, regained control and helped drive back the attackers. An airflift of supplies from the United States also helped Israel win the war.
In the Persian Gulf War in 1991, airpower played a decisive role. In that war, a coalition of nations led by the United States drove Iraq out of Kuwait. Before the war began, the coalition moved huge amounts of equipment to the Persian Gulf region in one of the largest airlifts in history.
Coalition air forces began the war in mid-January 1991 with massive bombing of targets in Iraq and Kuwait. The United States Air Forces used precision-guided “smart” bombs and the F-117 “stealth” fighter-bomber. The special design and surface materials of “stealth” bombers make them difficult to detect with radar. The coalition quickly gained control of the air, destroying many Iraqi aircraft on the ground and forcing many others to flee to Iran. When the coalition launched a ground attack in late February, the air had so devastated the Iraqis that they surrendered within days.
Famous Air Battles:
1918 – St. Mihiel (Sept 12-16). An Allied air armada of about 1,500 aircraft hurled German planes back over eastern France, achieving effective air control.
1940 – Battle of Britain (July 10 – Oct. 31). The German Luftwaffe (air force), numbering more than 2,000 aircraft, tried to bomb the British into submission, but the much smaller Royal Air Force (RAF) repelled almost daily assaults. The battle saved the United Kingdom from invasion during World War II. It also proved that air forces could fight decisive actions by themselves, not just in support of infantry and artillery.
1941 – Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7). A 360-plane surprise attack by Japan on the based aircraft defeated Japanese naval air units in the central Pacific Fleet plunged the United States into World War II.
1942 – Coral Sea (May 4 -8) and Midway (June 4-6). United States carrier-based aircraft defteated Japanese naval air units in the central Pacific Ocean. Both sides launched more than 100 aerocentral in each battle. These battles demonstrated the absolute dependence of a surface battle fleet on its air arm. In the Battle of the Coral Sea, ships rarely fired at other ships. The Battle of Midway ended with the defeat of the Japanese fleet. (Midway Island).
1944-1945 – V-Weapon campaign. The German fired more than 12,000 V-1 and V-2 guided missiles on England, Belgium, and the Netherlands. These attacks marked the first systematic use of guided and ballistic missiles in warfare.
1945 – Hiroshima (Aug 6) and Nagasaki (Aug 9). The US Army Air Forces dropped the first atomic bombs used in combat. Both were dropped on the Japanese cities by B-29 bombers based on Tinian Island 2,189 kilometres away.
1950 – 1953 – Korean Air Campaign. In the first –scale clashes between jet aircraft, hundreds of US and Soviet-built jets battled over North Korea.
1967 – Arab-Israeli War (June 5 -10). The Israeli Air Force destroyed about 400 Arab combat planes and lost 19 on the first day of the war. The Arabs could not recover. When the war ended, the Israelis controlled Arab territory totaling more than three times the area of Israel.
1986 – Air raid on Libya (April 14 -15). US President Ronald Reagan ordered air strikes against military installations near the Libyan cities of Tripoli and Benghazi. In the bombing raid, 18 US Air Force fighter-bombers stationed in the United Kingdom joined 15 US Navy attack planes from aircraft carriers in the Mediterranean Sea. The raid was in response to evidence linking Libya to the bombing of a nightclub in Berlin.
1991 – Persian Gulf War (Jan 17 –Feb 28). In operation “Desert Storm”, a coalition led by the United States attacked Iraqi targets. Other air forces involved included those of France, Italy, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom. The coalition flew more than 110,000 sorties (missions) and lost 36 aeroplanes (Persian Gulf War).
Wars: Korean War, Persian Gulf War, Vietnam War, World War I, and World War II.
Weapons and equipment: Aeroplane, Airship, Bomb, Bomber, Glider, Guided missile, Helicopter, Machine gun, Nuclear weapon, Radar, Rocket, Torpedo and V/STOL.
Other related articles: Aerospace medicine, Airborne troops, Aircraft carrier, Amphibious warfare, Antiaircraft defence, Armed services of Australia, Aviation, Decorations (medals and orders), Armed services of India, Insignia. Armed services of Ireland, Logistics, Luftwaffe, Armed services of Philippines, Space exploration, Armed services of United Kingdom, Armed services of United States, and war aces.
Air force is the branch of a nation’s armed forces responsible for military operations in the air. An air force consists of pilots and other personnel, aircraft, support equipment and military bases. Some air forces also have guided missiles and spacecraft.
Most countries have some type of air force. More powerful nations have an independent air force equal in rank to the other branches of the nation’s armed forces. These countries usually also have an air force unit in their army and navy. Many smaller, less powerful nations have an air unit as part of their army or navy.
AIR FORCES DIFFER GREATLY IN SIZE AND FIGHTING STRENGTH, DEPENDING ON A NATION’S WEALTH, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATIONAL DEFEND NEEDS. THE LARGE AIR FORCES OF INDUSTRIAL NATIONS HAVE MODERN BOMBERS, FIGHTERS, TRANSPORT PLANES, HELICOPTERS AND OTHER AIRCRAFT. Most developing nations cannot afford the advanced technology required to build a modern air force. But some have assembled relatively strong air forces through loans and trade with industrial nations. Many smaller developing nations have air forces that consist of older aircraft.
The United States and Russia have the most powerful and complex air forces. These forces include thousands of aircraft and long-range missile, some with nuclear
Warheads. Other powerful nations, including China, France, and the United Kingdom (UK), also have such missiles.
Until the development of aeroplanes and guided missiles in the 1990’s, nations relied on armies and navies for military power. The operations of these forces, however, are limited by land and sea barriers. Today, armies and navies remain extremely important. But the main striking force of the most powerful nations consists of aeroplanes and guided missiles.
The role of air forces.
A nation’s air force may have several different roles depending on the country’s security needs. Air forces within an army or navy support the operations of that branch. A navy’s air force, for example, may operate attack and reconnaissance (observation) planes from aircraft carriers to obtain information about operations in enemy territory. A navy’s air force may also patrol its country’s coastline. An air force that serves as a separate military branch, however, usually has several roles related to establishing control of the air. These roles include (1) COMBAT, (2) DEFENCE AND (3) TRANSPORT.
COMBAR MISSIONS involve fighting directly against an enemy force. The two chief types of combat missions are strategic and tactical. In strategic missions, air forces operate over long distances, usually travelling from one continent to another. The most common strategic missions involve attacked with bombs and long-range missiles against specific targets in enemy cities and industrial areas. Strategic attacks are designed to destroy the enemy’s ability and desire to fight.
Tactical missions are short or medium-range operations carried out in cooperation with ground or sea forces in battle. Such missions include attacks on enemy ground forces and counter air tactical missions. In these missions, fighter planes may attack enemy aircraft to gain control of the air over a battle area. In interdiction attacks, aircrafts strike transportation networks and other targets behind enemy lines. Such attacks prevent enemy forces and supplies from reaching the battlefield.
DEFENCE MISSIONS protect a nation’s territory from enemy attack. Advanced air forces use radar stations and satellites to detect surprise attacks by enemy bombers or missiles. In case of such an attack, an air force uses missiles and fighter planes to shoot down enemy bombers and missiles.
The threat of a counterattack can also serve as part of a nation’s air defences, especially among nations that have nuclear weapons. Nations may avoid launching a nuclear attack because of their fear of a counterattack.
TRANSPORT MISSIONS, also called airlifts, support a nation’s combat operations by moving troops and equipment quickly by air. In a strategic airlift, aircraft transport troops and equipment over long distances. A tactical airlift provides air support to battlefield operations. For example, aircraft may drop paratroopers and supplies in a battle area or behind enemy lines. In peacetime, air forces may transport food and other supplies to areas struck by disaster.
OTHER MISSIONS include reconnaissance and air rescue. Reconnaissance missions gather military information using visual observation or cameras, radar, and other sensing devices aboard aircraft and satellites. Air rescue missions use small planes or helicopters to rescue people trapped in dangerous areas.
The organization of air forces
The leader of an independent air force may be a chief of staff or air marshal and hold the rank of general. Air forces of smaller countries often come under the command of the army or navy.
The squadron is the basic administrative unit of air forces. A squadron usually consists of aircraft of one type or model. Most fighter and attack squadrons have 18 to 24 assigned aircraft, which are usually grouped into smaller units of 2 to 4 planes called flights. Bomber squadrons typically have from 10 to 19 assigned aircraft. Two or more squadrons form units called groups or wings. In large air force, these units may combine to form larger divisions or commands.
Aircraft and missiles.
Aircraft are usually classified by their function. The main types of aircraft are (1) attack and fighter aircraft, (2) bombers, (3) transport aircraft and (4) reconnaissance aircraft.
Attack and fighter aircraft are designed for speed and manoeuvrability in combat. They usually have a crew of one or two and carry missiles or bombs, depending on their mission. These aircraft attack enemy planes and ground targets or defend against air attacks. Bombers are usually large, medium-range or long-range planes that carry a combination of bombs and guided missiles for striking strategic targets. Only a few nations with powerful air forces have bombers. Bomber crews range in size from about four to six people.
Bombers are usually large, medium-range or long-range planes that carry a combination of bombs and guided missiles for striking strategic targets. Only a few nations with powerful air forces have bombers. Bomber crews range in size from about to six people.
Transport aircraft carry troops or cargo. The crew of a typical transport plane includes a pilot, copilot, navigator, flight engineer and one or more loadmasters responsible for the cargo or passengers.
Reconnaissance aircraft carry cameras or electronic sensors to gather information about enemy forces. Reconnaissance aircraft include both aeroplanes specifically designed for reconnaissance and modified versions of other aircraft.
Other aircraft include trainers, tankers, and helicopters. Trainers are used to train pilots. Tankers refuel other aircraft in flight. Helicopters serve a variety of functions. Some, called gunships, carry guns and missiles and are used in combat. Others transport troops and equipment over short distances.
Missiles used by air forces may be launched from the ground or from aircraft. Ground-launched strategic missiles include intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM’s) and intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBM’s). ICBM’s can deliver a nuclear warhead to a target up to 15,000 kilometres away. IRBM’s can reach from about 2,700 to 5,500 kilometres. In some nations, such as in the United States, the air force is responsible for ICBM’s. But in others, including China and Russia, these missiles fall under a separate command. Air forces defend against ballistic missile attacks with ground-launch antiballistic missiles (ABM’s).
Air-launched missiles include both strategic and tactical missiles. Bombers carry air-launched strategic missiles such as the cruise missile, that can hit targets hundreds of kilometers away. Fighter and attack aircraft and helicopters fire tactical air-to-air missiles (AAM’s) at enemy aircraft and air-to-surface missiles (ASM’s) at ground targets.
Major air forces of the world.
The power of an air force depends on the quality of its TECHNOLOGY, TRAINING, AND EQUIPMENT. The world’s most powerful air forces have advanced aircraft, well-trained crews, and efficient maintenance and supply systems. They include the air forces of the United States, Russia, China, France, India, The United Kingdom, Germany, and Israel. After the Soviet Union broke apart in 1991, Russia claimed most of the aircraft that had belonged to the massive Soviet Air Force. Other small but important air forces include those of Italy, North Korea, Turkey, and Ukraine.
The United States Air Force has about 1,700 fighter and attack aircraft and about 230 bombers. The air force also operates several satellite and radar systems. It has about 420,000 members, along with 78,000 in the Air Force Reserve. An additional 118,000 people serve in Air National Guard units, which are administered by the states. The US Air Force commands about 550 ICBM’s but no IRBM’s. Under a 1987 treaty, the United State and the Soviet Union agreed to eliminate their IRBM’s.
The US Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard all have their own air force units. The US Navy has the world’s largest air arm with about 1,700 combat aircraft. The US Army air unit includes about 1,700 combat aircraft.
The Russian Air Force has about 3,700 combat aircraft, including about 3,200 fighters. The air force has about 300,000 members. A separate strategic force has responsibility for about 1,200 ICBM’s. Another force for space operations launches and operates military satellites. The Russian Navy aviation branch has about 900 combat aircraft.
Several other farmer Soviet republics control ICBM’s and planes that had belonged to the Soviet Air Force. Ukraine, controls about 165 ICBM’s and over 900 combat aircraft, including more than 100 bombers. Kazakhstan has about 100 ICBM’s. Belarus has about 80 ICBM’s.
The Chinese Air Force has about 4,500 fighter and attack planes and about 470 bombers. Many of its planes are based on Russian designs. About 470,000 people serve in the air force. China’s Navy operates an additional 880 combat aircraft. China also has 14 ICBM’s and over 90 IRBM’s under a separate strategic force.
The French Air Force has about 800 combat aircraft, mostly fighter and attack planes. The force has about 92,000 members. A separate strategic air force operates about 60 bombers equipped with IRBM’s. The French navy has about 100 combat aircraft.
The Indian Air Force has about 800 combat planes, including about 400 fights and more than 30 attack helicopters and it has a large arsenal of surface-to-air missiles. About 110,000 people serve in the Indian Air Force. India’s naval air force has about 60 additional combat aircraft and 75 armed helicopters.
The Unite Kingdom’s Air Force, called the Royal Air Force (RAF), has about 690 combat aircraft, mostly fighter and attack aeroplanes. It has about 80,000 members. The Royal Navy’s air arm about 50 combat aircraft and approximately 150 armed helicopters.
The German Air Force, called the Luftwaffe, includes about 650 attack and fighter aircraft, with about 120 additional combat aircraft in the navy’s air unit. About 96,000 people serve in the Luftaffe.
The Israeli Air Force has about 660 fighter and attack aircraft and about 32,000 members. It is one of the largest and most capable air force in the Middle East, with highly experienced pilots.
History
Early air force. The first air force was established by France in 1794, during a war against several other European nations. The air force flew large ballons filled with hot air or gas. The French used the ballons to observe movements of enemy troops.
The first air attack took place in 1849. Austria controlled much of Italy at that time and the people of Venice revolted. The Australians sent unmanned balloons carrying time bombs over the city. Some of the bombs exploded as planned. But the wind changed direction and blew several balloons back over the Austrian troops, where the rest of the bombs exploded.
During the American Civil War (1861 – 1865), both the Union and Confederate armies used balloons. The Union Army organized a balloon corps to direct artillery fire and observe Confederate troop movements. Almost every major army in the world soon established a balloon corps.
Balloons became much less important in warfare after Orville and Wilbur Wright made the world’s first aeroplane fight in 1903. By 1909, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States had purchased planes for their armed forced. In 1912, the UK established the Royal Flying Corps as the air arm of Royal Flying Corps as the air arm of the Royal Army and Navy. In 1918, the corps became the Royal Air Force, the first independent air force.
World War I began in 1914. In the war, the Allies, who included France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United State, fought the Central Powers, who included Germany and Ausria – Hungary. At that time, most aeroplanes flew at a maximum speed of about 120 kilometres per hour. They could reach an altitude of about 3,000 metres. By 1918, when the war ended, the maximum speed of aircraft had reached about 190 kilometres per hour, and maximum altitude had more than doubled. Planes also had become much more manoeuvrable.
At the beginning of the war, the fighting nations used planes only for observing enemy ground used planes only for observing enemy ground movements. Aircraft soon began to exchange gunfire, but many could not shoot forward because the plane’s propeller was in front. Bullets might shatter the blades of the propeller. In 1915, a Dutch designer, Anthony Fokker, developed a machine gun for the Germany that fired only when the propeller blades were not blocking the muzzle. The Allies began to use a similar gun in 1917.
During the war, pilots fought air battles called dogfights and fliers who shot down five or more enemy planes became known as aces. Toward the end of the war, battles between squadrons of planes replaced most combat between single pilots. Early in the war, pilots had dropped bombs by hand. Later, they used mechanical devices to release the bombs.
In September 1918, American officer Billy Mitchell directed the largest air assault of the war. He commander about 1,500 Allied aircraft in a mission over St. Mihiel in France, where the Germans had advanced. The Allied planes gained control of the air, dropped bombs behind the German lines, and attacked enemy ground forces. Two months later, the Allies won the war.
The growth of national air forces. World War I had resulted in the creation of a number of air services. In 1915, the government of British India asked the Australian government to send an air force to Mesopotamia (now chiefly part of Iraqi). The government sent a group of Australian airmen, known as the first Hall Flight, to take part in operations against Turkish forces in Mesopotamia. In 1916, the government set up No. 1 Squadron of the Australian Flying Corps (AFC). After World War I, the Australian government disbanded the AFC, but replaced it with a temporary force, the Australia Aviation Corps, which the army controlled. In 1921, the government established the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as a separate arm of the services.
Despite the success of military aviation during the war, however, most military did not realize its importance. In the United States, Mitchell became so bitter in his criticism of the US defence progranmme that he was court-martialled.
In the 1920’s, most nations reduced the strength of their air forces. A few air force officers such as the RAF’s Lord Trenched worked to improve organization and training. Trenched was the UK’s chief of the air staff from 1919 to 1929. As a result of his work, the RAF developed into an efficient force. During the 1920’s and early 1930’s, France, Germany, Italy and Sweden formed independent air forces.
World War II. Air power played a vital role in deciding the outcome of World War II. In the war, Germany, Italy, Japan and other Axis powers fought the Allies, who included Canada, China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The war began in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland. The Germans used a new
Maethod of warfare called blitzkrieg (lighting war). Germany’s air force, the Luftwaffe, bombed Polish troops, destroyed airfields, and struck at key cities, highways, and railways. On the ground, tanks and infantry overwhelmed the Polish forces. Between April and June 1940, Germany attacked and defeated Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium and France.
The Germans planned to invade the UK neir xt, but first they had no defeat the Royal Air Force. In July 1940, the Luftwaffe started to bomb British ships and ports. German air raids on London began in September. The RAF was outnumbered, but it had better planes and pilots than the Luftwaffe. The British also had developed radar and a decoding device that enabled them to read coded German messages. Both developments were carefully guarded secrets that helped the RAF intercept Luftwaffe raids. By October, the RAF had shot down more than 1,700 attacking planes and had lost about 900 of its own s Germany postponed its plans to invade the UK, but air raids on British cities continued.
The United States entered the war on Dec 8, 1941, the clay after about 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the US fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The attack destroyed or damaged 21 ships and more than 300 planes, temporarily crippling the Pacific Fleet and Hawaii’s air defence.
In mid-1942, American airpower halted Japanese advances in the Pacific in two important battles at sea. In the Battle of the Coral Sea, in May, planes based on air-craft carriers did all the fighting. The opposing warships did not fire a shot at one another, Japan lost more planes, but fewer ships, than the United States lost in the battle. Neither side won, but the battle prevented a Japanese assault on New Guinea. A month later, in the Battle of Midway, Japan lost 4 aircraft carrier and more than 200 planes. The Unite States lost 1 carrier and about 150 planes. The battle blunted Japan’s naval strength for the rest of the war and ended the threat of a Japanese attack on Hawaii and the United States.
By mid-1942, Japan had captured large parts of China and had cut off the country’s main supply routes. To help China continue fighting Japan, Allied forces flew supplies from India to China over the Himalaya, the world’s tallest mountain range. This dangerous route was called the “Hump”. During this airlift, which lasted almost three years, the Allies carried about 600,000 metric tons of supplies to China.
The Allies attacked Germany in 1943, when the UK and the United States started a bombing offensive that lasted almost until the end of the war. The RAF bombed German cities at night and American planes attacked enemy industries during the day. In 1944, the Luftwaffe began to use Jet fighter planes. These planes could fly about 885 kilometres per hour, compared with about 640 kilometres per hour for propeller-driven fighters. Germany also developed the first guided missiles, the V-1 and V-2. In 1944 and 1945, the Germans fired more than 12,000 missiles at enemy cities. But these technological advances came too late to affect the outcome of the war. Germany surrendered in May 1945.
In August 1945, American B-29 bombers dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombers had flown from Tinian Island, more than 2,000 kilometres away. Japan surrendered in September, and the war ended.
The development of jet aircraft in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s greatly increased the range and speed of attacking planes. In 1939, a German Heinkel He 178 made the first successful jet-powered flight. By 1944, Germany had developed the Messerschmitt Me 262, the first jet to fly combat missions. The first American jet plane, the Bell XP-59, flew in 1942 but was little used in World War II. After the war, several nations, including the UK, the Soviet Union, and the United States, rapidly developed jet-powered air forces. Soon each of these nations operated a fleet of jet fighters and long-range bombers. By the late 1950’s, France and China also began developing jet-powered air forces.
Air forces in the nuclear age. The United States emerge as the most powerful nation at the end of World War II. It was the only nation with atomic weapons and the aircraft to use them. But the Soviet Union soon began to challenge the United States, competing for power and international influence in a struggle known as the Cold War. In 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb. Several other nations have developed nuclear weapons since then.
The Soviet Union successfully tested its first ICBM in 1957, several months before the first successfully United States test. The Soviet Union also launched the first space satellite in 1957. The United States and the Soviet Union competed for supremacy in missiles and space. They also developed antiballistic missiles (ABM’s) designed to destroy enemy missiles in flight. To provide warning of a missile attack, the two nations set up missile detection systems on the ground and in space.
By the late 1960’s, the number of missiles and nuclear warheads had grown alarmingly large. In 1969, the United States and the Soviet Union began a series of conferences in an effort to limit country’s missile strength. After several more conferences in the 1970’s and 1980’s, they agreed to eliminate their IRBM’s.
Many smaller nations established strong air forces during the 1980’s by obtaining aircraft from the United States or the Soviet Union. These nations included Finland, Hungary, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
The Soviet Union began withdrawing its force from Eastern Europe in 1990. In 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to reduce their long-range missiles and bombers, including their ICBM forces, by about third. They also ended a continuous alert for long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons and took other steps to reduce the threat of a nuclear air attack. This alert had been in effect in the United States since 1957. In late 1991, the Soviet Union broke up. These developments reduced the threat of nuclear war and the need for huge armed forces. As a result, major air forces planned large cuts in personnel and equipment in the mid-1990’s.
Air forces in limited wars. Fear of a massive nuclear was helped prevent nations with nuclear weapons from using them. In all wars fought since World War II, nations restricted the weapons from using them. In all wars fought since World War II, nations restricted the weapons they used, the targets they attacked, and the areas of battle in order to avoid a nuclear conflict, in such wars, calls limited wars, air forces played an important role.
The Korean War (1950 – 1953) brought the first combat between jet aircraft. The United States and other members of the United Nations aided South Korea. United States military leaders limited attacks on military targets, but aeroplanes often fought each other. As many as 150 jet fighters took part in some air battles. Each Side adopted the principle of asylum, which allowed aircraft to withdraw from the battle zone without being pursued. Neither side won complete victory in this war.
During the Vietnam War (1957 -1975), the United States supported South Vietnam, and the Soviet Union and China backed North Vietnam and the Viet Gong rebels of South Vietnam. From 1965 to 1968, the US Air Force and the air arm of the US Navy conducted frequent bombing raids against North Vietnam and later attacked targets in South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. The US Air Force used helicopter gunships to locate and attack enemy forces in the jungles and mountains. United States helicopters also rescued downed aviators, transported the wounded, and carried supplies and troops. In 1969, the United States began withdrawing its troops from Vietnam. The United States removed the last of its troops and stopped its air attacks in 1973. Two years later, the war ended with a North Vietnamese and Viet Cong victory.
Wars in the Middle East. In 1967, the Israeli Air Force destroyed most of the air forces of Egypt. Jordan and Syria in the Six-Day War. Egypt rebuilt its air force and in 1973, staged a surprise attack with Syria against Israel. For a brief period, Egypt established control of the skies. Israel’s airpower, however, regained control and helped drive back the attackers. An airflift of supplies from the United States also helped Israel win the war.
In the Persian Gulf War in 1991, airpower played a decisive role. In that war, a coalition of nations led by the United States drove Iraq out of Kuwait. Before the war began, the coalition moved huge amounts of equipment to the Persian Gulf region in one of the largest airlifts in history.
Coalition air forces began the war in mid-January 1991 with massive bombing of targets in Iraq and Kuwait. The United States Air Forces used precision-guided “smart” bombs and the F-117 “stealth” fighter-bomber. The special design and surface materials of “stealth” bombers make them difficult to detect with radar. The coalition quickly gained control of the air, destroying many Iraqi aircraft on the ground and forcing many others to flee to Iran. When the coalition launched a ground attack in late February, the air had so devastated the Iraqis that they surrendered within days.
Famous Air Battles:
1918 – St. Mihiel (Sept 12-16). An Allied air armada of about 1,500 aircraft hurled German planes back over eastern France, achieving effective air control.
1940 – Battle of Britain (July 10 – Oct. 31). The German Luftwaffe (air force), numbering more than 2,000 aircraft, tried to bomb the British into submission, but the much smaller Royal Air Force (RAF) repelled almost daily assaults. The battle saved the United Kingdom from invasion during World War II. It also proved that air forces could fight decisive actions by themselves, not just in support of infantry and artillery.
1941 – Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7). A 360-plane surprise attack by Japan on the based aircraft defeated Japanese naval air units in the central Pacific Fleet plunged the United States into World War II.
1942 – Coral Sea (May 4 -8) and Midway (June 4-6). United States carrier-based aircraft defteated Japanese naval air units in the central Pacific Ocean. Both sides launched more than 100 aerocentral in each battle. These battles demonstrated the absolute dependence of a surface battle fleet on its air arm. In the Battle of the Coral Sea, ships rarely fired at other ships. The Battle of Midway ended with the defeat of the Japanese fleet. (Midway Island).
1944-1945 – V-Weapon campaign. The German fired more than 12,000 V-1 and V-2 guided missiles on England, Belgium, and the Netherlands. These attacks marked the first systematic use of guided and ballistic missiles in warfare.
1945 – Hiroshima (Aug 6) and Nagasaki (Aug 9). The US Army Air Forces dropped the first atomic bombs used in combat. Both were dropped on the Japanese cities by B-29 bombers based on Tinian Island 2,189 kilometres away.
1950 – 1953 – Korean Air Campaign. In the first –scale clashes between jet aircraft, hundreds of US and Soviet-built jets battled over North Korea.
1967 – Arab-Israeli War (June 5 -10). The Israeli Air Force destroyed about 400 Arab combat planes and lost 19 on the first day of the war. The Arabs could not recover. When the war ended, the Israelis controlled Arab territory totaling more than three times the area of Israel.
1986 – Air raid on Libya (April 14 -15). US President Ronald Reagan ordered air strikes against military installations near the Libyan cities of Tripoli and Benghazi. In the bombing raid, 18 US Air Force fighter-bombers stationed in the United Kingdom joined 15 US Navy attack planes from aircraft carriers in the Mediterranean Sea. The raid was in response to evidence linking Libya to the bombing of a nightclub in Berlin.
1991 – Persian Gulf War (Jan 17 –Feb 28). In operation “Desert Storm”, a coalition led by the United States attacked Iraqi targets. Other air forces involved included those of France, Italy, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom. The coalition flew more than 110,000 sorties (missions) and lost 36 aeroplanes (Persian Gulf War).
Wars: Korean War, Persian Gulf War, Vietnam War, World War I, and World War II.
Weapons and equipment: Aeroplane, Airship, Bomb, Bomber, Glider, Guided missile, Helicopter, Machine gun, Nuclear weapon, Radar, Rocket, Torpedo and V/STOL.
Other related articles: Aerospace medicine, Airborne troops, Aircraft carrier, Amphibious warfare, Antiaircraft defence, Armed services of Australia, Aviation, Decorations (medals and orders), Armed services of India, Insignia. Armed services of Ireland, Logistics, Luftwaffe, Armed services of Philippines, Space exploration, Armed services of United Kingdom, Armed services of United States, and war aces.
NAVY
NAVY is the branch of a nation’s armed forces that consists of warships and support ships, their crews, and land bases and their personnel. Many of the world’s navies also have an air force. Some navies include combat forces called marines, who are trained to fight in the air and on land.
Most nations that have a coastline have a navy. But the world’s navies greatly in size, in fighting strength, and in the types of ships and aircraft that they have. Smaller navies consist mainly of warships called small combatants, such as patrol boats, missile boats, and minesweepers. The main task of a small navy is to defend its nation’s coastline. Larger navies also have major warships, such as aircraft carriers, submarines and frigates. These warships can operate far out at sea without returning to port for weeks or months. Nations use large navies to control the sea and, during times of war, to attack enemy shores.
The United States and Russia have the world’s largest navies. Other countries with large navies include China, France, India and the United Kingdom (UK). For centuries, the most powerful nations were often those with the strongest navies. The development of aircraft and missiles in the 1900’s reduced the importance of seagoing forces. Nevertheless, navies still have tremendous military and political value. Warships are flexible in operation and they can travel the seas freely. International law allows ships to sail within 22.2 kilometers of any country’s coast without permission. Thus, a group of warships can serve as a temporary military base. More importantly, ships can carry out their mission independent of foreign land bases.
The role of navies
Nations use their navies in many different roles. A navy’s role depends on its size and composition and whether the nation is at war or at peace.
Peacetime roles. When a nation is at peace, it may show political support by sending its ships to an ally’s port or by training with an ally’s navy. Navies may also help deliver FOOD, MEDICINE AND OTHER HUMANITARIAN AID to war-torn countries or to areas struck by a natural disaster. In addition, nations may use their navies to collect intelligence (information about potential enemies).
Sometimes, navies perform limited military operations during peacetime. For example, in the 1980’s in the Persian Gulf, the UK’s Royal Navy cleared mines and US warships escorted oil tankers to protect them from attack during the war between Iran and Iraq. This was a military action, even though the UK and the United States were not directly involved in the war.
Wartime roles. During a war, the primary role of a small navy is to defend its nation’s coastline against enemies. Large navies have two principal wartime roles: (1) controlling the sea and (2) providing a base from which to lunch attacks against the shore.
Controlling the sea means that a navy takes over specific areas of the ocean to ensure the safe passage of its own ships and to deny passage to enemy ships. Control of the sea involves defending ships against attack. It also may involve blockading enemy land bases so that enemy ships and aircraft cannot use them. A navy may control some areas of the sea by laying naval mines (explosive devices in the water). Naval mines can damage or destroy ships that try to pass over them.
A nation with a large navy also has the power to attack targets on land from the sea. Modern warships can launch attacks from positions far out at sea using missiles and aircraft. Navies may also launch amphibious assaults – invasions of enemy coastal coastal areas by the combined action of land, sea, and air forces.
The organization of navies
Every navy has a shore-based branch and a seagoing branch. The shore-based branch includes HEADQUARTERS, COMMUNICATION STATIONS, AIRFIELDS, SHIPYARDS, MAINTENANCE FACILITIES, SUPPLY STATIONS, NAVAL SCHOOLS, AND THEIR PERSONNEL. The seagoing branch, usually called the fleet, consist of a navy’s ships, submarines, ship-based aircraft and their crews. The organization of a fleet varies with the size, mission, and location of the navy. The US navy, for example, has separate fleets in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. France has Atlantic and Mediterranean fleets. India’s navy operates one fleet on India’s western coast and a second fleet on its eastern coast.
Because ships are flexible in their operation, they can be organized in many combination for different purposes. In most fleets, each ship is assigned to a permanent administrative unit called a group, squadron, or division. Large fleets may also organize their ships into task forces. These are temporary groupings of ships formed to carry out a particular task. A task force may consist of one or more than a dozen ships, depending on the task. In the U.S. Navy, task forces are called battle groups when they contain one or more aircraft carriers.
Ships and aircraft
The world’s navies operate many types of ships, ranging from huge aircraft carriers to small patrol boats. Navies also use many kinds of aircraft.
Aircraft carriers are the largest warships ever built. Carriers serve as mobile bases for many kinds of aircraft. Some carriers are designed for conventional aircraft, which would normally require a long runaway. Conventional aircraft are launched from a carrierdeck with the aid of a catapult. When the aircraft land, a device called a tail hook lowered from the rear of the plane catches of one of the steel cables stretched across the deck. Only the Brazilian, French, Russian and US navies had conventional aircraft carriers in the mid-1990’s.
Other carriers can serve as a base only for V/STOL aircraft which take off vertically or from a short runaway. V/STOL stands for vertical/short take-off and landing. Several navies have V/STOL carriers. Helicopters fly from both of carriers.
Most carriers are armed with guns and missiles for short-range defence, but they depend on their aircraft and other warships for protection. Russian carriers are more heavily armed carriers in other fleets.
Cruisers are the next largest warships. Navies use cruisers primarily to defend aircraft carriers against air and submarines attacks. Cruisers are armed with missiles, rockets and torpedoes. Some cruisers also carry powerful long-range missiles for attacking targets on land. Only France, Italy, Peru, Russia and the United States had cruisers in the mid-1990’s.
Destroyers are similar to cruisers, but they are smaller and less costly to build. They are armed with guns, rockets, torpedoes, and missiles. A destroyer’s main role is to escot and defend other ships, but destroyers also perform independent missions. Several of the world’s navies have destroyers.
Frigates are the most common large warship in the world’s navies. Navies use them chiefly to defend other warships and cargo ships against enemy submarines. Frigates are armed with torpedoes and other antisubmarine weapons. Most frigates also have guns and some have missiles for defence against air and surface attacks.
Amphibious ships – often called amphibs – carry marines to enermy shores for operation on land. Amphibs use helicopters and landing craft to carry troops and their equipment ashore.
Submarines are warships travel underwater. They can remain at sea, fully submerged, for long periods. They are extremely difficult for enemies to attack. Navies have two principal kinds of submarines: attack submarines and ballistic missile submarines. Attacked submarines carry torpedoes and missiles. They primarily attack enemy surface ships and submarines. More than 40 navies have attack submarines. Ballistic missile submarines carry long-range ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads for attacking targets on shore. Only the navies of China, France, Russia, the UK, and the United States have ballistic missile submarines.
Auxiliary ships are noncombatant ships, most of which support warships. Underway replenishment (UNREP) ships carry fuel, food, weapons, ammunition, and other supplies for warships at sea. Other auxiliary ships include supply and repair ships called tenders, hospital ships, tankers, salvage ships and tugs.
Small combatants include missile and torpedo boats, minesweepers, and patrol boats. Small combatants operate mostly in coastal waters. Missile and torpedo boats have limited seagoing ability, but they carry powerful weapons for attacking larger ships. Minesweepers locate and destroy enemy mines. Patrol boats guard coastal waters.
Aircraft play a major role in modern naval operations. Navies use many types of aircraft, including fighter, attack, antisubmarine, cargo and reconnaissance (observation) planes; and helicopters.
Major Navies of the world
A powerful navy is modern, well trained, and can fight effectively. The world’s largest navies belong to the United States, Russia, China, the United Kingdom, France and India. A navy’s size does not necessarily reflect its fighting strength, however. For example, one aircraft carrier can provide as much striking power as several cruisers or submarines. In addition, advanced weapons can give a small navy major striking power.
The United States had more than 185 surface warships in the early 1990’s, including 12 conventional aircraft carriers. The carriers, 7 of which wee nuclear powered, were the backbone of the US fleet. In addition to surface ships, the US Navy operated about 100 nuclear-powered submarines. Approximately 500,000 men and women served in the US Navy. Another 180,000 belonged to the Marine Corps, a separate branch of the Department of the Navy.
Russia took control of most of the massive Soviet Navy after the Soviet Union broke apart in late 1991. Since then, Rusia has taken many ships and submarines out of service because they cost too much to operate. Despite these reductions, the Russian Navy is still large, and most of its ships are modern.
The submarine is the most important ship in the Russian fleet. The Russian Navy had about 250 submarines in the early 1990’s, far more than any other navy. About 150 were nuclear powered. Russia also had more than 190 surface warships. The Russian
Navy had about 320,000 men, including marines.
China has a large navy, but its ships are old and have spent little time training at sea. Thus, the effectiveness of the Chinese Navy has been limited. China’s fleet operates mostly in coastal waters. During the early 1990’s, China had about 50 surface warships, plus about 1,000 small combatants. China also operated about 45 submarines, only 6 of which were nuclear powered. Approximately 260,000 people, including marines, served in the Chinese Navy.
France has a small navy, but it is modern, well trained and effective. France had about 40 surface warships in the early 1990’s, including 2 conventional aircraft carriers. France also had 17 submarines, 9 of which were nuclear powered. About 65,000 people served in the French Navy, including marines.
The United Kingdom has a small but effective navy. The navy of the United Kingdom, called the Royal Navy, operated about 45 surface warships in the warships in the early 1990’s. The Royal Navy also had about 20 submarines, more than half of which were nuclear powered. About 62,000 people, including marines, were in the Royal navy.
India enlarged its navy during the 1980’s as part of a major arms build-up. By the early 1990’s, India had nearly 30 surface warships and 15 diesel-powered submarines. However, lack of funding forced India to cut back its naval building programme and to limit time spent training at sea. About 55,000 people, including marines, serves in the Indian Navy.
The History of Navies
Ancient Navies. By about 3000 BC, the Egyptians were using small seagoing ships for military purposes. Between 2000 and 1000 BC, the Greeks began building long, wooden ships called galleys. Galleys were propelled chiefly by oars, but most also had sails. Ancient Mediterranean civilization and trading ships. Ancient galleys had pointed bows to ram other ships. Later, crews used catapults (weapon that resembled giant slingshots) to throw stones, hot coals, and pitch onto enemy ships.
In 483 BC, the Greek city-state of Athens began to build a large fleet of galleys to defend itself against invaders from Persia. Athens soon became the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean Sea. Athens defeated the Persian fleet near the island of Salamis in 480 BC in the first naval battle for which an extensive record exists.
In 31 BC, the fleets of two rival Roman leaders, Mark Antony and Gaius Octavian, fought a battle off Actium in western Greece. Antony was allied with Cleopatra, the queen of Eqypt and commanded their joint fleets. Octavian’s fleet won the battle. He later became Emperor Agustus of Rome. Rome reigned as the supreme naval power in the Mediterranean for the next 250 years.
Navies in the Middle Ages. From the AD 700’s to about 1100, bold Scandinavian sailors, now known as Vikings, raided coastal and river settlements throughout western Europe. In the late 800’s, the English king Alfred the Great built a large fleet of galley warships to defend his country against Viking raiders.
During the 1200’s, Europeans began to build ships with large, deep hulls (main bodies). Deep-hulled ships were faster and could travel more easily on the high seas than long, low galleys. Sails rather than oars became the principal means of propulsion, though some ships still used oars when there was no wind.
Most navies of the Middle Ages followed a standard battle plan. Attacking warships sailed alongside enemy ships and hurled rocks and flaming chemicals at them. Attackers then tried to ram or board enemy ships. After boarding, the crews fought hand-to-hand using swords, hatches and later, guns. Some historians believe navies first used cannons during the 1300’s. But naval guns did not come into use until the 1500’s.
Between 1405 and 1433, a Chinese fleet, led by Admiral Cheng Ho, made a series of seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and eastern coast of Africa. These vogayes established China as the unchallenges naval naval power in Asia for the first half of the 1400’s. China’s naval supremacy ended after leaders who disapproved of contact with foreigners took control.
The beginning of modern navies. The Italian city of Venice was the major sea power in the Mediterranean during the late Middle Ages. By 1400, Venice had a fleet of about 3,000 galleys. The Ottoman Empire, based in what is now Turkey, ranked as Venice’s chief naval rival. In 1571, Venice, Spain and their allies destroyed most of the Ottoman fleet in a battle off Lepanto in Greece. This was the last major battle between oar-driven galleys.
During the 1500’s, Spain and England competed for control of the Atlantic Ocean. Both countries built ships called galleons. Galleons were large, high sailing ships with three masts. In the late 1500’s, English galleons began harassing Spanish galleons carrying gold and silver from the Americas. In response, Spain built a fleet called the Armada. In 1588, this fleet tried to invade England. But England’s galleons were smaller and easier to manoeuvre than Spain’s, and English crews were better trained. The English crushed the Armada and England dominated the Atlantic for the next 300 years.
The Netherlands competed with England for control of the seas during the mid-1600’s. The two countries fought several naval battles that brought important changes in military tactics at sea. By this time, fleets had become large and difficult to command. Naval commanders began issuing instructions before a battle to coordinate the movements of their ships during the fighting. Large groups of ships were divided into squadrons. Large groups of ships were divided into squadrons. Commanders used flags to signal to other ships.
The largest warships were called battleships or ships of the line because they were positioned in the main line of battle. Opposing lines of battleships sailed on parallel courses and bombarded each other with cannon fire. In the Battle of Trafalgar, off the coast of Spain in 1805, British Admiral Horatio Nelson won a major victory by breaking through and disrupting the battle line of the opposing French and Spanish navies.
Engineering advances. In 1814, American inventor Robert Fulton built the first steam-powered warship. Steamships could cruise faster than sailing ships, and they could move against or without wind. But steamships faced a new problem. They needed fuel and had to depend on land bases to supply coal for refueling. Navies had to establish fuelling stations overseas.
Improvements in the range, reliability and accuracy of shipboard guns had a tremendous impact on naval warfare. During the 1820’s, inventors developed naval guns that fired explosive shells rather than solid balls. In 1853, Russian ships fired the first explosive shells used in naval battle, destroying the wooden ships of the opposing Ottoman fleet during the Crimean War. In this war, Russia fought the allied forces of Britain, France, Sardina and the Ottoman Empire.
In the mid-1800’s, shipbuilders began covering wooden hulls with heavy iron armour. Investors developed rotating turrets so that naval guns could be fired in almost any direction without turning the ship. As the range and accuracy of guns increased, ships fought at greater distances. Crews no boarder enemy ships and fought hand-to-hand, as in the sailing era.
In 1862, during the American Civil War, the Union’s Monitor fought the South’s Merrimack (then named the Virginia) in the channel of Hampton Roads in Chesapeake Bay. Neither ship was sunk. But this battle is famous because it was the first battle between two iron-armoured ships. It was also one of the first battles between ships powered entirely by steam.
In 1906, the UK completed the more large guns and was faster than any previous battleship. It made all other battleships out of date and it pushed Germany and the UK into a race of modern shipbuilding.
World War I began in 1914. In the war, the Allies, who included France, Italy, Russia, the UK and the United States, fought Germany, Austria-Hungary, and other Central Powers. The war featured two new weapons that revolutionized navalwar: submarines and aeroplanes. Submarines armed with torpedoes sank many enemy surface ships. Aeroplanes, flawn from airfields ashore, attacked ships, submarines and targets on land.
Most naval battles during World War I involved only small numbers of ships. The war’s largest naval battle occurred in 1916, when the UK and Germany fought the Battle of Jutland, off the coast of Denmark. Although the UK lost more ships, it forced the German fleet to with draw and remain in port for the rest of the war.
When World War I ended in 1918, the UK, Japan and the United States were engaged in costly shipbuilding programmes. After extensive negotiations, these and other nations agreed to limit warship construction. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended military action against Germany, barred Germany from building a large navy. But Germany, barred Germany from building a large navy. But Germany violated the treaty by secretly building submarines for other countries. When German dictator Adolf Hitler rose to power in the early 1930’s, he ordered the construction of a large navy. Japan and the Soviet Union also began building major fleets in the 1930’s.
World War II began in Europe in 1939. In that war, Germany, Italy, Japan and smaller Axis nations fought the Allies, who included Canada, China the Soviet Union, the UK and the United States. Naval combat broke out in the Atlantic in 1939, when German warships began attacking UK ships. Germany’s goal was to cut off the UK’s supply of food and war materials. The UK sank most of Germany’s surface ships, forcing Germany to resort to submarine warfare. The Allies fought German submarines with planes, antisubmarine ships, radar, sonar, and underwater bombs called depth charges. In addition, the Allies were able to intercept and decode Germany radio messages, which helped them predict the movement of enemy submarines.
Naval combat began in the Pacific Ocean on December 7, 1941. That day, Japanese bombers flying from six aircraft carriers made a surprise attack on the US Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The Japanese sank or heavily damaged five US battleships. But all of the US Navy’s aircraft carriers survived because none were then in Pearl Harbor. After the attack, aircraft carriers became in Pearl Harbor. After the attack, aircraft carriers became the principal warship of the US Navy.
The Battle of the Coral Sea, in May 1942, was the first naval battle fought entirely by carrier-based aircraft. Opposing Japanese and US warships did not fire a single shot at an enemy ship. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 was the turning point for naval war in the Pacific. In this battle, the US Navy sank four Japanese aircraft carriers and one cruiser. The Battle for Leyte Gulf in the Philippines, in October 1944, was one of the largest naval battles in history. This series of actions involved about 280 Japanese and US warships. The battle eliminated Japan as a major naval power.
By the time Japan surrendered in 1945 and World War II ended, only the United States and the UK still had major navies. The US fleet was much larger than the rest of the world’s seagoing forces combined.
Navies during the Gold War. The Cold War was a period of intense rivalry that developed after World War II between Communist and non-Communist countries. During this period, many countries carried out naval building programmes. Many small navies were modernized with the addition of submarines, missiles and other advances weapon. The Soviet Union began a driven to enlarge and modernize its fleet in the late 1940’s.
After World War II, aviation experts predicted that aircraft carrying nuclear bombs would be the principal weapon in future military conflicts. As a result, the US Navy concentrated on building aircraft that could fly from large carriers and carry nuclear bombs.
The Korea War (1950 – 1953) proved, however, that conventional naval forces were still vital to modern conflicts. In this war, the United States and other members of the United Nations aided South Korea against North Korea, which was backed by China and the Soviet Union. Airpower was not the deciding factor in ending the war, and neither side used nuclear weapons. During the war, the US Navy launched carrier-based air attacks, made amphibious landings and used shipboard guns to bombard enemy coastal targets.
In 1954, the US launched the world’s first nuclear-powered ship, the submarine Nautilus. The first Soviet nuclear submarine was completed about five years later. The first nuclear-powered surface warships were the US aircraft carrier Enterprise and the cruiser Long Beach, both completed in 1961. By the mid-1960’s, the Soviet Union and the States had submarines with ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads.
The world’s navies were involved in numerous conflicts during the Cold War period. Foe example, in 1962, the US Navy blockaded Cuba to force the Soviet to remove missiles and aircraft they had brought to the island. The US Navy saw extensive combat in the Vietnam War after the United States became heavily involved in the war in 1965. The US Navy also played a major role in the Persian Gulf War in 1991. In 1992, the UK’s Royal Navy battle Argentina for control of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. The Royal Navy was victorious, proving that it could fight against modern weapons at great distances from the United Kingdom.
Navies after the Cold War. The Cold War ended in the early 1990’s, after the Soviet Union broke apart and democratic reforms took place in Eastern Europe.
Many countries, including Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, began reducing their navies. Older ships were cut up for scrap metal, newer ships were placed in reserve, and fewer new ships were built. Both Russia and the United States began reducing their fleets of ballistic missile submarines. However, some smaller navies, including those of France, India and Israel, continued to build and modernize their fleets. Several of the former Soviet republics, especially Ukraine, began to build their own navies in the 1990’s.
Related articles: Famous battles: Battle of Actium, Battle of Jutland, Monitor and Merrimack, Salamis Spanish Armanda and Battle of Trafalgar.
Kind of Ships: Aircraft carrier, Amphibious ship, Battleship, Cruiser, Destroyer, Frigate, Galleon, Galley, Missile boat, Submarine and Warship.
Other related articles: Air force, Amphibious warfare, Armed service of Australia, Guided missile, Armed services of India, Armed services of Ireland, Marine, Mine warfare, Armed services of Philippines, Ship (History), Torpedo, Armed services of United Kingdom, Armed services of United States and V/STOL.
NAVY is the branch of a nation’s armed forces that consists of warships and support ships, their crews, and land bases and their personnel. Many of the world’s navies also have an air force. Some navies include combat forces called marines, who are trained to fight in the air and on land.
Most nations that have a coastline have a navy. But the world’s navies greatly in size, in fighting strength, and in the types of ships and aircraft that they have. Smaller navies consist mainly of warships called small combatants, such as patrol boats, missile boats, and minesweepers. The main task of a small navy is to defend its nation’s coastline. Larger navies also have major warships, such as aircraft carriers, submarines and frigates. These warships can operate far out at sea without returning to port for weeks or months. Nations use large navies to control the sea and, during times of war, to attack enemy shores.
The United States and Russia have the world’s largest navies. Other countries with large navies include China, France, India and the United Kingdom (UK). For centuries, the most powerful nations were often those with the strongest navies. The development of aircraft and missiles in the 1900’s reduced the importance of seagoing forces. Nevertheless, navies still have tremendous military and political value. Warships are flexible in operation and they can travel the seas freely. International law allows ships to sail within 22.2 kilometers of any country’s coast without permission. Thus, a group of warships can serve as a temporary military base. More importantly, ships can carry out their mission independent of foreign land bases.
The role of navies
Nations use their navies in many different roles. A navy’s role depends on its size and composition and whether the nation is at war or at peace.
Peacetime roles. When a nation is at peace, it may show political support by sending its ships to an ally’s port or by training with an ally’s navy. Navies may also help deliver FOOD, MEDICINE AND OTHER HUMANITARIAN AID to war-torn countries or to areas struck by a natural disaster. In addition, nations may use their navies to collect intelligence (information about potential enemies).
Sometimes, navies perform limited military operations during peacetime. For example, in the 1980’s in the Persian Gulf, the UK’s Royal Navy cleared mines and US warships escorted oil tankers to protect them from attack during the war between Iran and Iraq. This was a military action, even though the UK and the United States were not directly involved in the war.
Wartime roles. During a war, the primary role of a small navy is to defend its nation’s coastline against enemies. Large navies have two principal wartime roles: (1) controlling the sea and (2) providing a base from which to lunch attacks against the shore.
Controlling the sea means that a navy takes over specific areas of the ocean to ensure the safe passage of its own ships and to deny passage to enemy ships. Control of the sea involves defending ships against attack. It also may involve blockading enemy land bases so that enemy ships and aircraft cannot use them. A navy may control some areas of the sea by laying naval mines (explosive devices in the water). Naval mines can damage or destroy ships that try to pass over them.
A nation with a large navy also has the power to attack targets on land from the sea. Modern warships can launch attacks from positions far out at sea using missiles and aircraft. Navies may also launch amphibious assaults – invasions of enemy coastal coastal areas by the combined action of land, sea, and air forces.
The organization of navies
Every navy has a shore-based branch and a seagoing branch. The shore-based branch includes HEADQUARTERS, COMMUNICATION STATIONS, AIRFIELDS, SHIPYARDS, MAINTENANCE FACILITIES, SUPPLY STATIONS, NAVAL SCHOOLS, AND THEIR PERSONNEL. The seagoing branch, usually called the fleet, consist of a navy’s ships, submarines, ship-based aircraft and their crews. The organization of a fleet varies with the size, mission, and location of the navy. The US navy, for example, has separate fleets in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. France has Atlantic and Mediterranean fleets. India’s navy operates one fleet on India’s western coast and a second fleet on its eastern coast.
Because ships are flexible in their operation, they can be organized in many combination for different purposes. In most fleets, each ship is assigned to a permanent administrative unit called a group, squadron, or division. Large fleets may also organize their ships into task forces. These are temporary groupings of ships formed to carry out a particular task. A task force may consist of one or more than a dozen ships, depending on the task. In the U.S. Navy, task forces are called battle groups when they contain one or more aircraft carriers.
Ships and aircraft
The world’s navies operate many types of ships, ranging from huge aircraft carriers to small patrol boats. Navies also use many kinds of aircraft.
Aircraft carriers are the largest warships ever built. Carriers serve as mobile bases for many kinds of aircraft. Some carriers are designed for conventional aircraft, which would normally require a long runaway. Conventional aircraft are launched from a carrierdeck with the aid of a catapult. When the aircraft land, a device called a tail hook lowered from the rear of the plane catches of one of the steel cables stretched across the deck. Only the Brazilian, French, Russian and US navies had conventional aircraft carriers in the mid-1990’s.
Other carriers can serve as a base only for V/STOL aircraft which take off vertically or from a short runaway. V/STOL stands for vertical/short take-off and landing. Several navies have V/STOL carriers. Helicopters fly from both of carriers.
Most carriers are armed with guns and missiles for short-range defence, but they depend on their aircraft and other warships for protection. Russian carriers are more heavily armed carriers in other fleets.
Cruisers are the next largest warships. Navies use cruisers primarily to defend aircraft carriers against air and submarines attacks. Cruisers are armed with missiles, rockets and torpedoes. Some cruisers also carry powerful long-range missiles for attacking targets on land. Only France, Italy, Peru, Russia and the United States had cruisers in the mid-1990’s.
Destroyers are similar to cruisers, but they are smaller and less costly to build. They are armed with guns, rockets, torpedoes, and missiles. A destroyer’s main role is to escot and defend other ships, but destroyers also perform independent missions. Several of the world’s navies have destroyers.
Frigates are the most common large warship in the world’s navies. Navies use them chiefly to defend other warships and cargo ships against enemy submarines. Frigates are armed with torpedoes and other antisubmarine weapons. Most frigates also have guns and some have missiles for defence against air and surface attacks.
Amphibious ships – often called amphibs – carry marines to enermy shores for operation on land. Amphibs use helicopters and landing craft to carry troops and their equipment ashore.
Submarines are warships travel underwater. They can remain at sea, fully submerged, for long periods. They are extremely difficult for enemies to attack. Navies have two principal kinds of submarines: attack submarines and ballistic missile submarines. Attacked submarines carry torpedoes and missiles. They primarily attack enemy surface ships and submarines. More than 40 navies have attack submarines. Ballistic missile submarines carry long-range ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads for attacking targets on shore. Only the navies of China, France, Russia, the UK, and the United States have ballistic missile submarines.
Auxiliary ships are noncombatant ships, most of which support warships. Underway replenishment (UNREP) ships carry fuel, food, weapons, ammunition, and other supplies for warships at sea. Other auxiliary ships include supply and repair ships called tenders, hospital ships, tankers, salvage ships and tugs.
Small combatants include missile and torpedo boats, minesweepers, and patrol boats. Small combatants operate mostly in coastal waters. Missile and torpedo boats have limited seagoing ability, but they carry powerful weapons for attacking larger ships. Minesweepers locate and destroy enemy mines. Patrol boats guard coastal waters.
Aircraft play a major role in modern naval operations. Navies use many types of aircraft, including fighter, attack, antisubmarine, cargo and reconnaissance (observation) planes; and helicopters.
Major Navies of the world
A powerful navy is modern, well trained, and can fight effectively. The world’s largest navies belong to the United States, Russia, China, the United Kingdom, France and India. A navy’s size does not necessarily reflect its fighting strength, however. For example, one aircraft carrier can provide as much striking power as several cruisers or submarines. In addition, advanced weapons can give a small navy major striking power.
The United States had more than 185 surface warships in the early 1990’s, including 12 conventional aircraft carriers. The carriers, 7 of which wee nuclear powered, were the backbone of the US fleet. In addition to surface ships, the US Navy operated about 100 nuclear-powered submarines. Approximately 500,000 men and women served in the US Navy. Another 180,000 belonged to the Marine Corps, a separate branch of the Department of the Navy.
Russia took control of most of the massive Soviet Navy after the Soviet Union broke apart in late 1991. Since then, Rusia has taken many ships and submarines out of service because they cost too much to operate. Despite these reductions, the Russian Navy is still large, and most of its ships are modern.
The submarine is the most important ship in the Russian fleet. The Russian Navy had about 250 submarines in the early 1990’s, far more than any other navy. About 150 were nuclear powered. Russia also had more than 190 surface warships. The Russian
Navy had about 320,000 men, including marines.
China has a large navy, but its ships are old and have spent little time training at sea. Thus, the effectiveness of the Chinese Navy has been limited. China’s fleet operates mostly in coastal waters. During the early 1990’s, China had about 50 surface warships, plus about 1,000 small combatants. China also operated about 45 submarines, only 6 of which were nuclear powered. Approximately 260,000 people, including marines, served in the Chinese Navy.
France has a small navy, but it is modern, well trained and effective. France had about 40 surface warships in the early 1990’s, including 2 conventional aircraft carriers. France also had 17 submarines, 9 of which were nuclear powered. About 65,000 people served in the French Navy, including marines.
The United Kingdom has a small but effective navy. The navy of the United Kingdom, called the Royal Navy, operated about 45 surface warships in the warships in the early 1990’s. The Royal Navy also had about 20 submarines, more than half of which were nuclear powered. About 62,000 people, including marines, were in the Royal navy.
India enlarged its navy during the 1980’s as part of a major arms build-up. By the early 1990’s, India had nearly 30 surface warships and 15 diesel-powered submarines. However, lack of funding forced India to cut back its naval building programme and to limit time spent training at sea. About 55,000 people, including marines, serves in the Indian Navy.
The History of Navies
Ancient Navies. By about 3000 BC, the Egyptians were using small seagoing ships for military purposes. Between 2000 and 1000 BC, the Greeks began building long, wooden ships called galleys. Galleys were propelled chiefly by oars, but most also had sails. Ancient Mediterranean civilization and trading ships. Ancient galleys had pointed bows to ram other ships. Later, crews used catapults (weapon that resembled giant slingshots) to throw stones, hot coals, and pitch onto enemy ships.
In 483 BC, the Greek city-state of Athens began to build a large fleet of galleys to defend itself against invaders from Persia. Athens soon became the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean Sea. Athens defeated the Persian fleet near the island of Salamis in 480 BC in the first naval battle for which an extensive record exists.
In 31 BC, the fleets of two rival Roman leaders, Mark Antony and Gaius Octavian, fought a battle off Actium in western Greece. Antony was allied with Cleopatra, the queen of Eqypt and commanded their joint fleets. Octavian’s fleet won the battle. He later became Emperor Agustus of Rome. Rome reigned as the supreme naval power in the Mediterranean for the next 250 years.
Navies in the Middle Ages. From the AD 700’s to about 1100, bold Scandinavian sailors, now known as Vikings, raided coastal and river settlements throughout western Europe. In the late 800’s, the English king Alfred the Great built a large fleet of galley warships to defend his country against Viking raiders.
During the 1200’s, Europeans began to build ships with large, deep hulls (main bodies). Deep-hulled ships were faster and could travel more easily on the high seas than long, low galleys. Sails rather than oars became the principal means of propulsion, though some ships still used oars when there was no wind.
Most navies of the Middle Ages followed a standard battle plan. Attacking warships sailed alongside enemy ships and hurled rocks and flaming chemicals at them. Attackers then tried to ram or board enemy ships. After boarding, the crews fought hand-to-hand using swords, hatches and later, guns. Some historians believe navies first used cannons during the 1300’s. But naval guns did not come into use until the 1500’s.
Between 1405 and 1433, a Chinese fleet, led by Admiral Cheng Ho, made a series of seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and eastern coast of Africa. These vogayes established China as the unchallenges naval naval power in Asia for the first half of the 1400’s. China’s naval supremacy ended after leaders who disapproved of contact with foreigners took control.
The beginning of modern navies. The Italian city of Venice was the major sea power in the Mediterranean during the late Middle Ages. By 1400, Venice had a fleet of about 3,000 galleys. The Ottoman Empire, based in what is now Turkey, ranked as Venice’s chief naval rival. In 1571, Venice, Spain and their allies destroyed most of the Ottoman fleet in a battle off Lepanto in Greece. This was the last major battle between oar-driven galleys.
During the 1500’s, Spain and England competed for control of the Atlantic Ocean. Both countries built ships called galleons. Galleons were large, high sailing ships with three masts. In the late 1500’s, English galleons began harassing Spanish galleons carrying gold and silver from the Americas. In response, Spain built a fleet called the Armada. In 1588, this fleet tried to invade England. But England’s galleons were smaller and easier to manoeuvre than Spain’s, and English crews were better trained. The English crushed the Armada and England dominated the Atlantic for the next 300 years.
The Netherlands competed with England for control of the seas during the mid-1600’s. The two countries fought several naval battles that brought important changes in military tactics at sea. By this time, fleets had become large and difficult to command. Naval commanders began issuing instructions before a battle to coordinate the movements of their ships during the fighting. Large groups of ships were divided into squadrons. Large groups of ships were divided into squadrons. Commanders used flags to signal to other ships.
The largest warships were called battleships or ships of the line because they were positioned in the main line of battle. Opposing lines of battleships sailed on parallel courses and bombarded each other with cannon fire. In the Battle of Trafalgar, off the coast of Spain in 1805, British Admiral Horatio Nelson won a major victory by breaking through and disrupting the battle line of the opposing French and Spanish navies.
Engineering advances. In 1814, American inventor Robert Fulton built the first steam-powered warship. Steamships could cruise faster than sailing ships, and they could move against or without wind. But steamships faced a new problem. They needed fuel and had to depend on land bases to supply coal for refueling. Navies had to establish fuelling stations overseas.
Improvements in the range, reliability and accuracy of shipboard guns had a tremendous impact on naval warfare. During the 1820’s, inventors developed naval guns that fired explosive shells rather than solid balls. In 1853, Russian ships fired the first explosive shells used in naval battle, destroying the wooden ships of the opposing Ottoman fleet during the Crimean War. In this war, Russia fought the allied forces of Britain, France, Sardina and the Ottoman Empire.
In the mid-1800’s, shipbuilders began covering wooden hulls with heavy iron armour. Investors developed rotating turrets so that naval guns could be fired in almost any direction without turning the ship. As the range and accuracy of guns increased, ships fought at greater distances. Crews no boarder enemy ships and fought hand-to-hand, as in the sailing era.
In 1862, during the American Civil War, the Union’s Monitor fought the South’s Merrimack (then named the Virginia) in the channel of Hampton Roads in Chesapeake Bay. Neither ship was sunk. But this battle is famous because it was the first battle between two iron-armoured ships. It was also one of the first battles between ships powered entirely by steam.
In 1906, the UK completed the more large guns and was faster than any previous battleship. It made all other battleships out of date and it pushed Germany and the UK into a race of modern shipbuilding.
World War I began in 1914. In the war, the Allies, who included France, Italy, Russia, the UK and the United States, fought Germany, Austria-Hungary, and other Central Powers. The war featured two new weapons that revolutionized navalwar: submarines and aeroplanes. Submarines armed with torpedoes sank many enemy surface ships. Aeroplanes, flawn from airfields ashore, attacked ships, submarines and targets on land.
Most naval battles during World War I involved only small numbers of ships. The war’s largest naval battle occurred in 1916, when the UK and Germany fought the Battle of Jutland, off the coast of Denmark. Although the UK lost more ships, it forced the German fleet to with draw and remain in port for the rest of the war.
When World War I ended in 1918, the UK, Japan and the United States were engaged in costly shipbuilding programmes. After extensive negotiations, these and other nations agreed to limit warship construction. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended military action against Germany, barred Germany from building a large navy. But Germany, barred Germany from building a large navy. But Germany violated the treaty by secretly building submarines for other countries. When German dictator Adolf Hitler rose to power in the early 1930’s, he ordered the construction of a large navy. Japan and the Soviet Union also began building major fleets in the 1930’s.
World War II began in Europe in 1939. In that war, Germany, Italy, Japan and smaller Axis nations fought the Allies, who included Canada, China the Soviet Union, the UK and the United States. Naval combat broke out in the Atlantic in 1939, when German warships began attacking UK ships. Germany’s goal was to cut off the UK’s supply of food and war materials. The UK sank most of Germany’s surface ships, forcing Germany to resort to submarine warfare. The Allies fought German submarines with planes, antisubmarine ships, radar, sonar, and underwater bombs called depth charges. In addition, the Allies were able to intercept and decode Germany radio messages, which helped them predict the movement of enemy submarines.
Naval combat began in the Pacific Ocean on December 7, 1941. That day, Japanese bombers flying from six aircraft carriers made a surprise attack on the US Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The Japanese sank or heavily damaged five US battleships. But all of the US Navy’s aircraft carriers survived because none were then in Pearl Harbor. After the attack, aircraft carriers became in Pearl Harbor. After the attack, aircraft carriers became the principal warship of the US Navy.
The Battle of the Coral Sea, in May 1942, was the first naval battle fought entirely by carrier-based aircraft. Opposing Japanese and US warships did not fire a single shot at an enemy ship. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 was the turning point for naval war in the Pacific. In this battle, the US Navy sank four Japanese aircraft carriers and one cruiser. The Battle for Leyte Gulf in the Philippines, in October 1944, was one of the largest naval battles in history. This series of actions involved about 280 Japanese and US warships. The battle eliminated Japan as a major naval power.
By the time Japan surrendered in 1945 and World War II ended, only the United States and the UK still had major navies. The US fleet was much larger than the rest of the world’s seagoing forces combined.
Navies during the Gold War. The Cold War was a period of intense rivalry that developed after World War II between Communist and non-Communist countries. During this period, many countries carried out naval building programmes. Many small navies were modernized with the addition of submarines, missiles and other advances weapon. The Soviet Union began a driven to enlarge and modernize its fleet in the late 1940’s.
After World War II, aviation experts predicted that aircraft carrying nuclear bombs would be the principal weapon in future military conflicts. As a result, the US Navy concentrated on building aircraft that could fly from large carriers and carry nuclear bombs.
The Korea War (1950 – 1953) proved, however, that conventional naval forces were still vital to modern conflicts. In this war, the United States and other members of the United Nations aided South Korea against North Korea, which was backed by China and the Soviet Union. Airpower was not the deciding factor in ending the war, and neither side used nuclear weapons. During the war, the US Navy launched carrier-based air attacks, made amphibious landings and used shipboard guns to bombard enemy coastal targets.
In 1954, the US launched the world’s first nuclear-powered ship, the submarine Nautilus. The first Soviet nuclear submarine was completed about five years later. The first nuclear-powered surface warships were the US aircraft carrier Enterprise and the cruiser Long Beach, both completed in 1961. By the mid-1960’s, the Soviet Union and the States had submarines with ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads.
The world’s navies were involved in numerous conflicts during the Cold War period. Foe example, in 1962, the US Navy blockaded Cuba to force the Soviet to remove missiles and aircraft they had brought to the island. The US Navy saw extensive combat in the Vietnam War after the United States became heavily involved in the war in 1965. The US Navy also played a major role in the Persian Gulf War in 1991. In 1992, the UK’s Royal Navy battle Argentina for control of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. The Royal Navy was victorious, proving that it could fight against modern weapons at great distances from the United Kingdom.
Navies after the Cold War. The Cold War ended in the early 1990’s, after the Soviet Union broke apart and democratic reforms took place in Eastern Europe.
Many countries, including Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, began reducing their navies. Older ships were cut up for scrap metal, newer ships were placed in reserve, and fewer new ships were built. Both Russia and the United States began reducing their fleets of ballistic missile submarines. However, some smaller navies, including those of France, India and Israel, continued to build and modernize their fleets. Several of the former Soviet republics, especially Ukraine, began to build their own navies in the 1990’s.
Related articles: Famous battles: Battle of Actium, Battle of Jutland, Monitor and Merrimack, Salamis Spanish Armanda and Battle of Trafalgar.
Kind of Ships: Aircraft carrier, Amphibious ship, Battleship, Cruiser, Destroyer, Frigate, Galleon, Galley, Missile boat, Submarine and Warship.
Other related articles: Air force, Amphibious warfare, Armed service of Australia, Guided missile, Armed services of India, Armed services of Ireland, Marine, Mine warfare, Armed services of Philippines, Ship (History), Torpedo, Armed services of United Kingdom, Armed services of United States and V/STOL.
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