Life in the Middle Ages centred upon
control of the land. Land was ruled by a powerful lord, defended by his
knights, and farmed by his peasants. The lord's home, a mighty stone castle
built for defence, provided protection for the peasants. The Christian church
was also an important institution during the-Middle Ages. When a town wanted to
build a new cathedral, the townspeople sometimes helped construct it.
These community building projects were called fatigues.
Building a
medieval stone wall required great engineering skill. In this illustration,
workers cut stone into squares and carry it to a crane. A man powers the crane
by walking on the steps of a large moving wheel. Another worker carries mortar
up a ladder to the man who cements the pieces of stone together.
In the Middle Ages, cathedrals were decorated with stained glass windows portraying
stories from the Bible.
Middle Ages
Middle Ages were the period between ancient and modern times in
western Europe. Before the Middle Ages, western Europe was part of the Roman
Empire. After the Middle Ages, western Europe included the Holy Roman Empire,
the kingdoms of England and France, and a number of smaller states. The Middle
Ages are also known as the medieval period, from the Latin words medium
(middle) and aevum (age). Sometimes the Middle Ages are incorrectly
called the Dark fyes. The Dark Ages were the period from about A.D.
400to 1000, when learning and culture were at a low jftband documentary
information about the period's history was scanty or influenced by myth and
legend.
The history of the Middle Ages extends from the end of the Roman
Empire to the 1500's. Historians today do not give exact dates for the end of
the Roman Empire, cause it ended over a period of several hundred years. This
article uses the A.D. 400's as the starting date of the Middle Ages. By that time,
the Roman Empire was so weak that Germanic tribes were able to conquer it. The
Germanic way of life gradually combined with the Roman way of life to form the
civilization which we call medieval. Medieval civilization was greatly
influenced by the Muslims in Spain and the Middle East, and by the Byzantine
Empire in southeastern Europe.
This article tells about life in western Europe between the A.D.
400's and the 1500's. To learn how other civilizations influenced medieval
European civilization, see the World Book articles on Byzantine Empire;
Crusades; Muslims; and Rome, Ancient. See also World, History of the.
The beginnings
The Germanic invasions. The Germanic peoples came from Scandinavia
in northern Europe. They began moving into central Europe in about 1000 B.C. By
the A.D. 200's, they occupied regions in the Rhine and Danube river basins
along the northern and northeastern boundaries of the Roman Empire. Some
Germans adopted the civilization of their Roman neighbours.They traded with
Roman merchants, learned to farm the land, and accepted Christianity as their
religion.
But most Germans were rough, ignorant people. The Romans called
them barbarians (uncivilized people). The Germans lived in tribes, each
governed by a chief. The few laws that these people had were based on tribal
customs and superstition. The tribesmen were fierce in appearance—big, bearded,
and clothed in animal skins or coarse linen. They fought with spears and
shields, and were brave warriors. The Germans lived mainly by hunting and by a
crude type of farming. They worshipped such Scandinavian gods as Odin and
Thor. Few Germans could read or write.
During the A.D. 400's, the Germanic tribes began invading Roman
territory. By then, the Roman Empire had lost much of its great power, and its
armies could not defend the long frontier. The Visigoths invaded Spain in about
A.D. 416. The Angles, Jutes, and Saxons began to settle in Britain about 450. The
Franks established a kingdom in Gaul (now France) in the 480's. The Ostrogoths
invaded Italy in
489. See Angles; Franks; Goths - Saxons.
Barbarian Europe. The barbarian invasions divided the huge Roman Empire into many kingdoms. The barbarians
were loyal only to their tribal chiefs or to their own families. Each tribe
kept its own laws and custom. As a result, the strong central and local government
the Romans disappeared.
In the Roman Empire, a strong system of laws protected the citizens and gave them the safety and security that comes from law and order. Barbarian supers, replaced many Roman laws. For example, trial by ordeal,
became a common way of determining whether a person was guilty of a crime. The
accused person's arm was plunged into a pot of boiling water. Or the person to
pick up a red-hot iron bar with the bare hand. If the burns healed within three
days, the person was judge innocent. Otherwise, the accused was hanged. See Trial
by combat.
The barbarian invasions also destroyed most of the European trade
that the Romans had established. Few people used the great system of stone
roads that had encouraged trade and communication among the prosperous cities
of the Roman Empire. Without trade, money went out of use almost completely.
Most of the people were forced to make their living from activities.
By the 800's, most of western Europe was divided into large
estates of land called manors. A few wealthy land-owners, called landlords
or lords, ruled the manors, but most of the
people were poor peasants who worked the land. Each village on a manor produced
nearly everything needed by its people. This system of obtaining a living from
the land was called manorialism. See Manorialism.
Towns lost their importance under manorial conditions. Most
people who had lived in the towns went to the countryside and became peasants
on the manors. Some towns were completely abandoned and gradually disappeared.
The middle class, which had engaged in trade and industry, also disappeared.
Education and cultural activities were almost forgotten. Almost
all state and city schools disappeared. Few people could read or write Latin,
which was the langguage of the well-educated. Even fewer people were, educated
enough to preserve the little that remained ancient Greek and Roman knowledge.
The great skills ancient literature, architecture, painting, and sculpt were
forgotten.
The Christian church was the main civilizing for barbarians of
the early Middle Ages. It provided leadership for the people and saved western
Europe from complete ignorance.
Little by little, the church made Christians of the barbarians.
Although the people of Europe no longer honoured one ruler, they gradually
began to worship the same God. People called missionaries travelled
great distances to spread the Christian faith. They also helped civilize the
barbarians by introducing Roman ideas of government and justice into their
lives.
The popes, bishops, and other leaders of the church took over many
functions of government after the Roman emperors lost power. The church
collected taxes and maintained law courts to punish criminals. Church building also served as
hospitals for the sick, and for travellers
Two church institutions—the cathedral and the mon- wjl§Lbecame
centres of learning in the early Middle Cathedrals were the churches of
bishops. Mon- $eS.- . were communities of men
called monks, who > worldly life to serve God through prayer and
The monks of some
monasteries and the clergy of *! cathedrals helped continue the reading and
writing Latin, and preserved many valuable ancient manu- riots. They also set
up most of the schools in Europe.
The Carolingian Empire
united most of western Europe under one ruler in the late 700's. The Carolingians
were a family of Frankish kings who ruled from the mid- 700'sto 987. The
most important Frankish rulers were Charles Martel, his son Pepin son the Short, and Pepin's son Charlemagne.
Charles Martel united the Frankish kingdom in the early 700's, when he
captured lands held by powerful Frankish lords. Pepin the
Short strengthened the Carolingians'control over the Frankish kingdom.
In 768, Charlemagne became ruler of the kingdom. Fie then conquered
much of western
Europe, and united Europe for the first time since the end of the
Roman Empire.
In creating their empire, the Frankish rulers depended on the
assistance of loyal noblemen called vassils. A nobleman became a vassal
when he pledged his loyalty to the king and promised to serve him. The king
then became a lord to his vassal. Most vassals held important positions
in the king's army, where they served ask nights. Many vassals had their
own knights, whose services they also pledged to the king.
The Carolingian kings rewarded their vassals by granting them
estates called fiefs. A fief included the manors on the land, the
buildings and villages of each manor , and the peasants who farmed the manors.
The early Middle Ages reached their highest point of achievement
during the long rule of Charlemagne. He worked to protect the church from its
enemies and to keep the people of Europe united under the church. Although Charlemagne
never learned to write, he did improve education. Fie established a school in his palace at
Aachen, and teachers from throughout Europe gathered there. They organized
schools and libraries, and copied ancient manuscripts. These activities caused a new interest in
learning called the Carolingian Renaissance. See Charlemagne.
Charlemagne's empire and the revival of learning did not last long
after his death. His three grandsons fought each other for the title of
emperor. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun divided the empire into three parts, one
for each grandson. Soon after, the divided empire was attacked by Magyars,
Muslims, and Vikings. By the late 800’s, the Carolingian Empire no longer
existed.
Feudal Europe
Feudalism. After the end
of Charlemagne's empire, Europe was again divided into many kingdoms. Most of the kings had little control over their
kingdoms. As a result, hundreds of vassals—with such titles as prince, von,
duke, or count— became independent rulers of their own fiefs. These
noblemen ruled their fiefs
through a form of government called feudalism.
Under feudalism, the noblemen who controlled the land also had
political, economic, judicial, and military power. Each nobleman collected
taxes and fines, acted as judge in legal disputes, and maintained an army of
knights within his own territory. He also supervised the farming of the manors
on his fief. The fief-holders were the ruling class in Europe for more than 400
years.
A typical member of the ruling class under feudalism was a
nobleman, a knight, a vassal, and a lord—all at the same time. He was a
nobleman because he had been born into the noble class. He became a knight when
he decided to spend his life as a professional warrior. He became a vassal when
he promised to serve a king or other important person in return for a fief.
Finally, he became a lord when he gave part of his own land to persons who
promised to serve him.
Suppose that Sir John, a nobleman, was a vassal of William the
Conqueror, king of England and duke of Normandy. When John pledged his loyalty
to William, he also promised to supply the king with 10 knights. In return,
William gave 20 manors to John as a fief, if the king called his army to
battle, John had to go—and take nine other knights with him. If John did not
have nine knights living in his household, he hired wandering knights. As
payment, John gave each knight one manor as a fief. The knights then pledged
their loyalty and service to John. In this way, they became John's vassals,
and he became their lord.
A lord and a vassal had rights and duties toward each other. A
lord promised his vassal protection and justice, and the vassal gave the lord
various services, most of which were military. Feudal warfare was common in Europe.
If a lord and his vassal performed their duties, there was peace and good
government. But if either disregarded his duties, war broke out between them.
The lords fought among themselves as well, because they often tried to seize
each other's land. The church, which had its own princes and fiefs, was part of
the feudal system, so it also suffered in the warfare. See Feudalism.
Feudal
government. During the 900's and 1000's, most of western Europe was divided
into feudal states. A powerful lord ruled each state as if he were king. The
kings themselves ruled only their own royal lands.
In France, the king ruled only the area called the Ile-
de-France, a narrow strip of land near Paris. The rest of France was
divided into such feudal states as Aquitaine, Anjou, Brittany, Flanders, and
Normandy. In some feudal states, no lord was powerful enough to establish a
strong government. But in Anjou, Flanders, and Normandy, capable lords
provided strong governments.
The dukes of Normandy maintained tight control over the noblemen
living there. No one could build a castle, collect taxes, regulate trade, or
hold important court trials without the duke's permission. Only he could order
an army into battle.
Under William the Conqueror, England became the strongest feudal
state in Europe. William, who was duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1066.
After defeating the Anglo-Saxon army, he became king of England. He then
established the feudal system in England by making all landholders his
vassals. See Norman Conquest; Normandy; William (I, the Conqueror).
The strong governments in the feudal states of France and England
provided some peace and security for the people. Strong feudal government
allowed rulers in the 1100's and 1200's to establish strong central governments
in France and England.
Feudalism did not provide strong government in Germany or Italy.
For hundreds of years, powerful dukes fought the kings. Otto I, one of the most
powerful German kings, won control over the dukes in the mid-900's. Fie then tried
to create an empire similar to Charlemagne's. After conquering lands east of
Germany, Otto invaded Italy. In 962, the pope crowned Otto Holy Roman
Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire was small and weak, and included only
Germany and northern Italy. In time, the German dukes tried to regain control
of their kingdoms, and the empire was continually divided by warfare. Neither
Germany nor Italy became united countries until the 1800's.
The power of the church became the single great force that bound
Europe together during the feudal period. The church touched almost everyone's
life in many important ways. The church baptized a person at birth"
performed the wedding ceremony at the person's marriage, and conducted the
burial services when the person died.
The church also became the largest landholder in western Europe
during the Middle Ages. Many feudal lords gave fiefs to the church in return
for services performed by the clergy. At first, feudal lords controlled the
church, but it gradually won a large degree of freedom.
Although clergymen did not take a direct part in feudal warfare,
they controlled the lords with their own of' types of weapons. One great power
of the church was its threat of excommunication. To excommunicate a person
meant to cut the person off completely from the church and take away the
person's hope of going to heaven. If a lord continued to rebel after being
excommunicated, the church disciplined him with an interdict. This action
closed all the
churches on the lord's land. No one on the land could be married or buried with
the church’s blessing, and the church bells never rang.
The people usually became so discontented that they rebelled and the
lord finally yielded to the church.
Live of the
people. Europe during the 900's was poor, underdeveloped, and thinly
populated. At least half the land could not be farmed because of thick forests or swamps. War,
disease, famine, and a low birth rate kept the population small. People lived
an average of only 30 years. There was little travel or communication, and
fewer than 20 per cent of the people went farther than 16 kilometres from their
birthplace.
The people of western Europe consisted of three groups. The lords
governed the large fiefs and did all the fighting. The clergy served the
church. The peasants worked on the land to
support themselves, the clergy, and the lords.
The lords. A lord's life centred around fighting. He believed
that the only honourable way to live was as a professional warrior. The lords
and their knights, wearing heavy armour and riding huge war
horses, fought with lances or heavy swords.
The behaviour of all fighting men gradually came to be governed by
a system called chivalry. Chivalry required that a man earn knighthood
through a long and difficult training period. A knight was supposed to be
courageous in battle, fight according to certain rules, keep his promises, and
defend the church. Chivalry also .included rules for gentlemanly conduct toward
women. In times of peace, a lord and his knights entertained themselves by
practising for war. They took part in jousts (combat between two armed
knights) and in tournaments [combat between two groups of knights). See
Knights and knighthood.
The lord lived in a manor house or a castle. Early castles were
simple forts surrounded by fences of tree trunks. Later castles were mighty
fortresses of stone. In the great hall of the castle, the lord and his knights
ate, drank, and gambled at the firesides. They played dice, draughts, and
chess.
The lord's wife, called a lady, was trained to sew, spin,
and weave, and to rule the household servants. She had few rights. If she did
not bear at least one son, the lord could end their marriage. Neither the lords
nor their ladies thought education was necessary, and few could read or write.
The clergy. Most bishops and other high-ranking clergymen were
noblemen who devoted their lives to toe church. They ruled large fiefs and
lived much like other noblemen. Some of these clergymen were as wealthy and
powerful as the greatest military lords.
Monks who lived in a monastery were required to live according to
its rules. They had to spend a certain number of hours each day studying,
praying, and taking part in religious services. Some monks who were outstanding
scholars left the monastery and became advisers to kings or other rulers.
Many peasants who became clergymen served as priests in the
peasant villages. Each village priest lived in a small cottage near his church.
He gave advice and help to the peasants, settled disputes, and performed church
ceremonies. The priests collected fees for baptisms, marriages, and burials.
But most priests were as poor as the peasants they served.
The peasants had few rights, and were almost completely at the
mercy of their lords. A peasant family worked together to farm both the lord's
fields and their own. Peasants also performed whatever other tasks the lord
demanded, such as cutting wood, storing grain, or repairing roads and bridges.
Peasants had to pay many kinds of rents and taxes. They had to
bring grain to the lord's mill to be ground, bake bread in the lord's oven, and
take grapes to the lord's wine press. Each of these services meant another
payment to the lord. Money was scarce, so the peasants usually paid in wheat,
oats, eggs, or poultry from their own land.
Peasants lived in crude huts and slept on bags filled with straw.
They ate black bread, eggs, poultry, and such vegetables as cabbage and
turnips. Rarely could they afford meat. They could not hunt or fish because
game on the manor belonged to the lord.
The High Middle
Ages
Medieval civilization reached its highest point of achievement
between the 1000's and the late 1200's. This period is called the High
Middle Ages.
During the 1000's, many capable lords provided strong governments
and periods of peace and security under the feudal system. As a result, the
people were able to devote themselves to new ideas and activities.
Economic
recovery. As government improved, so did economic conditions. Merchants
again travelled the old land routes and waterways of Europe. Towns sprang up
along the main trade routes. Most early towns developed near a fortified
castle, church, or monastery where merchants could stop for protection. The
merchants, and the craftworkers who made the goods sold by the merchants,
gradually settled in the towns.
Europe's population began to increase during the 1000's, and many
people moved to the towns in search of jobs. At the same time, peasants began
to leave the manors to seek a new life. Some became merchants and craftworkers.
Others farmed the land outside the towns and supplied the townspeople with
food. Medieval towns, which arose mainly because of the growth of trade,
encouraged trade. The townspeople bought goods, and also produced goods for
merchants to sell.
The peasants learned better ways of farming and produced more and
more food for the growing population. Peasants began to use water power to run
the grain mills and sawmills. They gained land for farming by clearing forests
and draining swamps.
For the first time since the days of the Roman Empire, Europeans
took notice of the world beyond their borders. Merchants travelled afar to
trade with the peoples of the Byzantine Empire in southeastern Europe. The Crusades,
a series of holy wars against the Muslims, encouraged European trade with the Middle
East (see Crusades). Italians in Genoa, Pisa, Venice, and other towns built
great fleets of ships to carry the merchants' goods "across the
Mediterranean Sea to trading centres in Spain and northern Africa. The Italians
brought back goods from these seaports. Many of the goods were exports from
cities in India and China. Leaders in the towns of northern Germany created the
Hanseatic League to organize trade in northern Europe.
Merchants exchanged their goods at great international trade
fairs held in towns along the main European trade routes. Each fair was held at
a different time of the year, and merchants travelled from one fair to another.
The county of Champagne in northeastern France became the site of the first
great European fairs. Its towns lay on the trade routes that linked Italy with
northern Europe. Flemish merchants brought woollen cloth to the fairs. Italian
merchants brought silks, spices, and perfumes from the Middle East, India, and
China. Merchants from northern and eastern Europe brought furs, timber, and
stone. The merchants not only traded their goods, but also exchanged ideas
about new methods of farming, new industries, and events in Europe and the rest
of the world.
Medieval towns. Early towns were
only small settlements outside the walls of a castle or a church. As the small
towns grew larger, walls were built around them. Soldiers on the walls kept a
lookout for attacking armies. The towns were crowded because the walls limited
the amount of land available. Houses stood crowded together. The people had to
build upward because land was expensive, and many buildings were five or six storeys high.
Streets were narrow, crooked, dark, and filthy. Until about 1200,
they were not paved. The people threw all their garbage and rubbish into the
streets, and disease spread quickly. During the 1200's, the people in some
towns began to pave their streets with rough cobble-stones. They also took some
steps toward increasing sanitation.
A citizen who went out at night took his servants along for
protection against robbers. The servants carried lanterns and torches because
no town had any street lighting. The wide use of lamps, torches, and candles
made fire one of the great dangers for a medieval town. Wealthy citizens had
stone and brick houses, but most of the houses were made of wood. A large fire
was likely to wipe out a whole town. The city of Rouen, in France, burned to
the ground six times between 1200 and 1225.
After the merchants and craftsmen settled in the towns, they set
up organizations called guilds. A guild protected its members against
unfair business practices, established prices and wages, and settled disputes
between workers and employers.
Guilds played an important part in town government When the first
guilds were organized, the towns had few laws to protect merchants or
craftsmen. Most laws were made and enforced by the lord who owned the land on
which a town stood. As the townspeople gained power, they demanded the right to
govern themselves. Often, a guild forced a lord to grant the people a charter
giving them certain rights of self-government. Guilds led the townspeople's
fight for self-government, and so members of guilds often ran the new town
governments. See Guild.
The decline of
feudalism. Economic recovery brought many changes to the social and
political organization of Europe. Money came back into use with the growth of
trade and industry, the rise of towns, and the crusades. The manorial system
began to break down as people grew less dependent on the land. Many peasants ran away
from the manors to the towns. Other peasants bought their freedom with money
that they made by selling food to the townspeople. The lords of some towns
encouraged new settlers to come. Many lords granted freedom to peasants who
settled in their towns.
The feudal system, which was based on manorialism began to break
down, too. Ruling lords could pay for military and political service with money
instead of fiefs. Their wealth provided better pay for the soldiers and officials
they hired. In return, the lords received better service. They and their
governments grew increasingly powerful.
Developments in the 11 Offs and 120ffs laid
the foundation for the eventual rise of great
nation-states in England and France. Such powerful kings as Henry II of England and Louis IX of France forced
feudal lords to accept their authority. These kings developed new and better
forms of government. They also organized national armies to protect the
people, and established royal laws and courts to provide justice throughout the
land. See Henry (II) of England; Louis (IX).
At the same time, small but well-organized governments took form
in Flanders, and in Italian city-states including Florence
Genoa. Siena and
Venice.
Learning during the high Middle Ages were devoted to glorify God
and strengthening the power of the church. From 1100 to 1300, almost all the great
ideas and artistic achievements
reflected the influence of the church.
Princes and labored alike
contributed money to build the magnificent stone cathedrals that rose above
towns. The stained glass windows and sculptured decorated the cathedrals
portrayed the life of Christ and other stories from the Bible. The cathedrals
still standing in the French cities of Chartres Reims, Amiens, and Paris are
reminders of the faith of medieval people. See Notre Dame, Cathedral of; Reims picture.
Increasing contact with Arab and Byzantine civilizations brought
back much
learning that had been lost to Europe since the end of the
Roman Empire. Scholars translated Greek
and Arabic writings from these civilizations into Latin, and studied their
meanings. More and more scholars became familiar with the writings of the Greek philosopher
Aristotle. The
scholars argued whether Aristotle's teachings opposed those of the church. A field of
thought called scholasticism grew out of their discussions and writings
(see Scholasticism). Among the great teachers and writers of this period were
Peter Abelard, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas (see Abelard, Peter;
Albertus Magnus, Saint; Aquinas, Saint Thomas).
Students gathered at the cathedrals where the scholars lectured. Students and scholars formed organizations called universities,
which were similar to the craftsmens guilds. From the universities came men to
serve the church and the new states, to practise law and medicine, to write
literature, and to educate others.
The late Middle Ages
Between 1300 and 1500, medieval Europe gradually gave way to
modern Europe. During this period, the Middle Ages overlapped the period in
European history called the Renaissance. For a discussion of the great
developments in art and learning during this period, see the World Book
article on Renaissance.
A halt in progress. Although art and learning advanced,
other areas of medieval civilization stood still or fell back. Europe had moved
forward economically and socially almost without interruption during the high
Middle Ages. The population had grown steadily, social conditions had improved,
and industry and trade had expanded greatly. These developments came to an end
in the 1300's. The population decreased, the people became discontented, and
industry and trade shrank.
Wars and natural disasters played a large part in the halt of
European progress. From 1337 to 1453, England France fought the Hundred Years'
War, which interred trade and exhausted the economies of both nations (see
Hundred Years' War). In addition, the breakdown of feudalism and manorialism
caused civil war throughout most of Europe. Peasants rose in bloody revolts to
win freedom from lords. In the towns, workers ’ought the rich
merchants who kept them poor and powerless.
To add to the miseries of the people, the Black Death killed
about a fourth of Europe's population between 1347 and 1350. The Black Death, a
form of bubonic plague, was one of the worst epidemic diseases (see Bubonic
plague). Severe droughts and floods also brought death, disease, and famine.
The growth of
royal power. By the 1300's, the breakdown of feudalism had seriously weakened
the feudal lords. At the same time, economic recovery had enriched the kings.
With the help of hired armies, the kings enforced their authority over the
lords. Royal infantry—newly armed with longbows, spears called pikes,
and guns—defeated armies of feudal knights.
Meanwhile, the kings greatly increased their power by gaining the
support of the middle classes in the towns. The townspeople agreed to support
the kings by paying taxes in return for peace and good government. These
developments gave birth to modern Europe.
Troubles in the
church. The power of the popes grew with that of the kings, and bitter
disputes arose between the rulers of church and state. Churchmen took an
increasing part in political affairs, and kings interfered in church affairs
more and more. The popes sometimes surrendered their independence and gave in
to the kings. This happened especially from 1309 to 1377, when the popes ruled
the church from Avignon, France. After the popes returned to Rome, disputes
over the election of popes divided the church. Two, and sometimes three, men
claimed the title of pope. Such disputes hurt the influence of the church.
They also caused criticism of church affairs and of church teaching. The
religious unity of western Europe was weakened, leading to the Protestant
Reformation of the 1500s. See Christianity (The division of the church); Pope
(The troubles of the papacy); Reformation.
The growth of humanism. During the late Middle Ages,
scholars and artists were less concerned with religious thinking, and
concentrated more on understanding people and the world. This new outlook was
called humanism. The scholars and artists of ancient Greece and Rome had
emphasized the study of humanity. Scholars and artists of the late Middle Ages
rediscovered the ancient works and gained inspiration from them. Architects
began to design nonreligious buildings, rather than cathedrals. Painters and
sculptors began to glorify people and nature in their works. Scholars delighted
in the study of pre-Christian authors of ancient times. During the late Middle
Ages, more and more writers composed prose and poetry not in Latin but in the vernacular
(native) languages, including French and Italian. This increasing use of
the vernacular opened a new literary age, and gradually brought learning and
literature to the common people.
The political, economic, and cultural changes of the late Middle
Ages gradually changed Europe, and by the early 1500's it was no longer
medieval. But the culture and institutions of the Middle Ages continued to
influence modern European history.
Related articles: For a discussion of political
developments in western Europe during
the Middle Ages, see the History sections of the articles on Austria;
Belgium; England; France; Germany; Italy; the Netherlands; Spain; and
Switzerland. Other related articles include: Agriculture, The use of horses for
farm work), Flanseatic League, Holy Roman Empire, Architecture (Medieval
architecture), Homage, Humanism, Armour, Hundred Years' War, Barbarian, Knights
and knighthood, Byzantine Empire, Library (The Middle Ages), Carolingian art, Literature
(The Middle Ages), Castle, Magna Carta, Cathedral, Manorialism, Charlemagne, Manuscript,
Christianity, Muslims, City (Medieval cities), Norman architecture, Classical
music (The Middle Ages), Normans, Painting (Medieval painting), Clothing (The
Middle Ages), Philosophy (Medieval philosophy), Crusades,
Curia Regis, Poetry (Medieval poetry), Dancing (The Middle Ages), Reformation,
Dark Ages, Renaissance, Democracy (The Middle Ages), Ancient Rome, Domesday Book,
Scholasticism, Drama (Medieval drama), Science (The Middle Ages), Education (Christian
education in the Middle Ages), Serf, Treaty
of Verdun, Exploration, Vikings,
Feudalism, Villein, Furniture, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, Gaul, History
of the World (The world from 500 to 1500), Glass (The Middle Ages), Gothic art,
and Yeoman Guild.
The beginnings
The Germanic
invasions
The Christian
Church
Barbarian Europe
The Carolingian
Empire
Feudal Europe
Feudalism
Feudal
government
Outline
The power of the
Church
Life of the
people
The High Middle
Ages
Economic
recovery
Medieval towns
The decline of
feudalism
Learning and the
arts
The late Middle
Ages
A halt in
progress
The growth of
royal power C Troubles in the church
The growth of
humanism
Questions
How did the
Germanic invasions of the A.D. 40's change European life?
What two church
institutions preserved learning during the early Middle Ages?
What were
Charlemagne's accomplishments?
What was feudalism?
What did it accomplish for medieval Europe?
What were the
three classes of medieval society during feudal times?
Why did towns
develop during the high Middle Ages?
What was a fief!
a manor! a vassal! a guild! the Black Death! :
Why did economic
and social progress come to a halt in the late medieval period?
What forces
weakened the church in the late Middle Ages? What was humanism! How did
it affect medieval society?
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