Religion

The ceremony of baptism marks the entrance of a person into Christianity. The Lutheran minister shown above has baptized the baby by placing a small quantity of water on its head.

Buddha preached that people can gain nirvana, or salvation, by freeing themselves from worldly attachments and desires. Bud­dhism began in India and spread to China and other Asian lands.

The Ten Commandments contain the basic laws of Judaism and Christianity. In their belief system, God gives the commandments to the Jewish leader Moses, who presents them to the Jews.

Prehistoric people performed religious ceremonies to ensure a sufficient food supply. The prehistoric artist who drew this scene may have believed that it would bring success in hunting.

A Shinto festival attracts thousands of believers to the Meiji shrine in Tokyo. Parents visit the shrine with their children to thank the gods for  their children's good health. They also pray for good for­tune for their children. The large wooden gate, or arch, called a torii, is the symbol of Shinto.

Jesus Christ founded Chris­tianity. Jesus, shown with a halo in this picture, calls two fishermen, Andrew and Peter, to become His followers. These two men were the first of the group that became known as apostle.

A Muslim reads the Quran at a temple in Mecca, the holiest city of Islam. The Islamic religion is based on the teachings of Mu­hammad, a prophet who preached during the A.D. 600's.

Hindu activists demand the right to build a temple at the claimed birthplace of the Rama in Ayodhya, Uttar Pra­desh, India. Their actions, in 1992, angered Muslims but were supported by devout Hindus.
A Buddhist prays in a temple in South Korea. The centre represents Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism's chief teacher.

Mass is the most important act of worship in several Christian churches. These worshippers are Roman Catholics.

African San go into a trance while dancing near a sacred fire. They believe the fire's heat gives them the power to heal.

Honouring the saint Comateswara, followers of Jainism bathe a huge granite figure with a sacred liquid. Jain pilgrims travel to Mysore, India, for the ceremony every 12 years.

Salvation from eternal punishment is the goal of many reli­gions. This painting represents the Christian belief in the Last judgment, when every person will either be granted happiness in heaven, or be condemned to suffering in hell.

Religion

Religion. No simple definition can describe the nu­merous religions in the world. For many people, reli­gion is an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, practices, and worship that centre on one supreme God, or the Deity. For many others, religion involves a num­ber of gods, or deities. Some people have a religion in which no specific God or gods are worshipped. There are also people who practise their own religious beliefs in their own personal way, largely independent of or­ganized religion. But almost all people who follow some form of religion believe that a divine power created the world and influences their lives.

People practise religion for several reasons. Many people throughout the world follow a religion simply because it is part of the heritage of their culture, tribe, or family. Religion gives many people a feeling of secu­rity because they believe that a divine power watches over them. These people often ask the power for help or protection. Numerous people follow a religion because it promises them salvation and either happiness or the chance to improve themselves in a life after death. For many people, religion brings a sense of individual fulfil­ment and gives meaning to life. In addition, religion provides answers to such questions as What is the purpose of life? What is the final destiny of a person? What is the difference between right and wrong? and What are one's obligations to other people? Finally, many people follow a religion to enjoy a sense of kinship with their fellow believers.

There are thousands of religions in the world. The eight major ones are Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Shinto, and Taoism. Of these eight religions, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism developed over many centuries. Each of the other religion traditionally bases its faith on the life or teachings of specific individuals. They are Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as Gautama Buddha, for Buddhism; Jesus Christ for Christianity; Confucius for Confucianism; Muhammad for Islam; and Abraham and Moses for Judaism.

The religions that trace their history to individuals low a general pattern of development. During the individual's lifetime or soon after his death, a distinctive system of worship ceremonies grew up around his life and teachings. This system, called a cult, became the basis of the religion. The heart of the cult is the teachings. In addition to inspiring worship, the individual represents a ideal way of life that followers try to imitate.

Religion has been one of the most powerful in history. The teachings of religions have shaped the live of people since prehistoric times. Judaism, Islam, and especially Christianity have been major influences in the formation of Western culture. These three faiths, particularly Islam, have also played a crucial role in the development of Middle Eastern culture. The cultures of Asia have been shaped by Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism. Most religions have been influenced by older religions.

Religion has been a supreme source of inspiration in the arts. Some of the most beautiful buildings in the world are houses of worship. Much of the world's great­est music is religious. Religious stories have provided countless subjects for paintings, sculptures, literature, dances, and films.

This article describes the chief characteristics of reli­gion. It also examines the origin of religion in prehis­toric times. In addition, the article describes the organi­zation of the world's eight major religions and briefly relates the history of each. Many separate World Book articles provide information on topics related to reli­gion. 

Chief characteristics of religion

Most of the leading religions throughout history have shared characteristics. The chief characteristics include (1) belief in a deity or in a power beyond the individual, (2) a doctrine (accepted teaching) of salvation, (3) a code of conduct, (4) the use of sacred stories, and (5) religious rituals (acts and ceremonies).

The essential qualities of a religion are maintained and passed from generation to generation by sources, called authority, which the followers accept as sacred. The most important religious authorities are writings known as scriptures. Scriptures include the Bibles of Christians and Jews, the Quran of Muslims, and the Vedas of  indus. Religious authority also comes from the writings of saints and other holy persons and from decisions by religious councils and leaders. Unwritten customs and laws known as traditions also form a basic Part of authority.

Belief in a deity. There are three main philosophical views regarding the existence of a deity. Atheists believe that no deity exists. Theists believe in a deity or deities. Agnostics say that the existence of a deity cannot be proved or disproved. Most of the major religions are theistic. They teach that deities govern or greatly influ­ence the actions of human beings as well as events in nature. Confucianism is the most important atheistic reli­gion.

Religions that acknowledge only one true God are monotheistic. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are exam­ples of monotheistic religions. A religion that has a num­ber of deities is polytheistic. The ancient Greeks and Ro­mans had polytheistic religions. Each of their many gods and goddesses had one or more special areas of influ­ence. For example, Aphrodite was the Greek goddess of love, and Mars was the Roman god of war. In henotheistic religions, the worship of a supreme Deity does not deny the existence and power of other deities. For ex­ample, Hinduism teaches that a world spirit called Brah­man is the supreme power. But Hindus also serve nu­merous other gods and goddesses. Many tribes in Africa and the Pacific Islands also worship a supreme power as well as many other deities.

The followers of some religions have deities that are or were people or that are images of people. The an­cient Egyptians considered their pharaohs to be living gods. Before World War II (1939-19451), the Japanese honoured their emperor as divine. Taoists have deities that look and act like human beings. They also worship some deities that were human beings and became gods or goddesses after death.

Many people worship nature deities—that is, deities that dwell in nature or control various aspects of nature.

The Chinese in particular have worshipped gods of the soil and grain. Followers of Shinto worship kami, spirits that live in nature. Many American Indian tribes wor­shipped a spirit power, a mysterious, magic force in na­ture.

The Chinese in particular have worshipped gods of the soil and grain. Followers of Shinto worship kami, spirits that live in nature. Many American Indian tribes wor­shipped a spirit power, a mysterious, magic force in na­ture.

A doctrine of salvation. Among the major religions, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism teach a doctrine of salvation. They stress that salvation is the highest goal of the faithful and one that all followers should try to achieve. Religions differ, however, in what salvation is and in how it can be gained.

A doctrine of salvation is based on the belief that indi­viduals are in some danger from which they must be saved. The danger may be the threat of physical misfor­tune in this world, such as a disease. Christianity and several other major religions teach that the danger is spiritual and is centred in each person's soul. The danger to the soul pertains mainly to life after death, if a person is saved, the soul enters a state of eternal happiness, often called heaven. If the person is not saved, soul may spend eternity in a state of punishment, which is often called hell.

Most religions teach that a person gains salvation by finding release from certain obstacles that block human fulfilment. In Christianity, the obstacles are sin and it effects. In most Asian religions, the obstacles are worldly desires and attachment to worldly things. Salvation in these religions depends on whether believers can free themselves from the obstacles with the aid of a savior. The saviour may be the individual on whose teachings the religion is based, a god, or some other divine figure. People must accept the saviour. They must also accept certain teachings, perform certain ceremonies, and abide by certain rules of moral conduct—all of which were inspired by the saviour.

Some religions consider salvation to be a gift from the Deity or deities. For example, many Christian de­nominations believe that individuals are saved by the grace of God and not by their own merit.

Most religions teach that salvation comes only once and is eternal. According to Buddhism and Hinduism the soul lives on after the death of the body and is reborn in another body. This cycle of rebirths is called reincarnation. The doctrine of karma is closely related to reincarnation. According to this doctrine, a person's actions, thoughts, and words determine the kind of animal or human body the soul will live in during the next reincarnation. The process of reincarnation continues until, through good deeds and moral conduct, a person fi­nally achieves a state of spiritual perfection, which is salvation. Buddhists call this state nirvana, and Hindus call it moksha.
A code of conduct is a set of moral teachings and values that all religions have in some form. Such a code, or ethic, tells believers how to conduct their lives. It instructs them how to act toward the deity and toward one another. Religious codes of conduct differ in many ways, but most agree on several major themes. For example, they stress some form of the golden rule, which states that believers should treat others as they would like to be treated themselves. A religion's code of conduct also may determine such matters as whom believers may marry, what jobs they may hold, and what kind of foods they may eat.

The use of sacred stories. For thousands of years, followers of religions have believed in sacred stories called myths. Religious leaders often used these stories to dramatize the teachings of their faith.

Originally, people told myths to describe how the sacred powers directly influenced the world. As the stories developed, they showed how some feature or event in the world was indirectly caused by the sacred powers. Many stories described the creation of the world. Others told how the human race or a particular people began. Some of the stories tried to explain the cause of natural occurrences, such as thunderstorms or the changes in seasons.

Today, there are scientific explanations for many of the subjects dealt with in sacred stories. But some religious groups still insist that the stories are true in every detail. Other groups believe only in the message contained in the stories, not in the specific details. Still other religious groups regard sacred stories as symbolic ex­pressions of the ideals and values of their faith.

Religious rituals include the acts and ceremonies by which believers appeal to and serve Cod, deities, or other sacred powers. Some rituals are performed by in­dividuals alone, and others by groups of worshippers. Important rituals are performed according to a schedule and are repeated regularly. The performance of a ritual is often called a service.

The most common ritual is prayer. Through prayer, a believer or someone on behalf of believers addresses words and thoughts to an object of worship. Prayer in­cludes requests, expressions of thanksgiving, confes­sions of sins, and praise. Most major religions have a daily schedule of prayer. Meditation, a spiritual exercise much like prayer, is important in Asian religions. Bud­dhist monks try to be masters of meditation.

Many religions have rituals intended to purify the body. For example, Hindus consider the waters of the Canges River in India to be sacred. Every year, millions of Hindus purify their bodies by bathing in the river, es­pecially at the holy city of Varanasi.

In some religions, pilgrimages are significant rituals. Pilgrimages are journeys to the sites of holy objects or to places credited with miraculous healing powers. Believers also make pilgrimages to sacred places, such as the birthplace or tomb of an important member of their faith. All devout Muslims hope to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad.

Many rituals are scheduled at certain times of the day, week, or year. Various religions have services at sunrise, in the morning, at sunset, and in the evening. The differ­ent religions have special services to mark the begin­ning of a new year. Many religions celebrate springtime, harvest time, and the new or full moon.

Many rituals commemorate events in the history of religions. For example, the Jewish festival of Passover recalls the meal that the Israelites ate just before their de­parture from slavery in Egypt. Various Christian celebra­tions of Holy Communion are related to the last meal that Jesus shared with His disciples before His death.

Rituals also mark important events in a person's life. Various religious ceremonies make sacred occasions of birth, marriage, and death. Rituals serve to accept young people into the religion and into religious societies. In Judaism, the ritual of circumcision is performed on male infants. Some Christians baptize babies soon after birth. Other Christians baptize only youths or adults.
How the major religious are organized

The organization of the world's major religions ranges from simple to complex. Many religions have spiritual leaders, often called the clergy. These leaders have the authority and responsibility to conduct reli­gious services, to advise or command believers, and to govern the religious organization at various levels. In some religions, the laity— that is, the believers who are not members of the clergy—also have important organi­zational roles.

In many countries, there is a state (official or favoured) religion. For example, Islam is the state religion of Iran. Lutheranism is the state religion of Sweden, and Bud­dhism is the state religion of Thailand.

Judaism has no one person as its head. Each local congregation supervises its own affairs, usually under the leadership of a rabbi. Israel and a few other countries have chief rabbis. These rabbis are scholars who serve as the top judges of religious law.

Christian denominations (groups) are organized in various ways. In the Roman Catholic Church, believers are organized into districts called parishes, which be­long to larger districts called dioceses. Dioceses, in turn, belong to provinces. The main diocese in each province is called an archdiocese. Pastors preside over parishes, bishops over dioceses, and archbishops over archdioceses. The pope presides over the entire Roman Catholic Church with the advice and assistance of high officials called cardinals. Some Protestant denomina­tions are governed by similar patterns of hierarchies (levels of authority). Other denominations are governed by boards of the clergy and laity or by local congregations.

Confucianism and Islam have no clergy. Leadership provided by scholars who interpret the teachings of the faith. In Shinto and Taoism, the basic organizational unit is the priesthood. In Buddhism, the chief organizational unit is an order of monks called the sangha. The monks serve as advisers and teachers and play a vital part in everyday life in Buddhist countries. In some Buddhist countries, the head of state is also the leader of the na­tional order of monks.

Hinduism has no consistent pattern of organization. There are no congregations or parishes. Hindus tend to worship individually or in families. Services in temples are performed by the Brahmans, the highest Hindu castek (social class). In some areas, the Brahmans occasionally serve as a kind of royal priesthood.

The origin of religion

The earliest recorded evidence of religious activity dates from only about 60,000 B.C. However, anthropolo­gists and historians of religion believe that some form of religion has been practised since people first appeared on the earth about 2 million years ago.

Experts think prehistoric religions arose out of fear and wonder about natural events, such as the occur­rence of storms and earthquakes and the birth of babies and animals. To explain why someone died, people credited supernatural powers greater than themselves or greater than the world around them.

Prehistoric people centred their religious activities on the most important elements of their existence, such as the prosperity of their tribe and getting enough food to survive. They often placed food, ornaments, and tools in graves. They believed that these items would be useful to or desired by dead people. Prehistoric people drew pictures and performed dances that were intended to promote the fertility of women and animals and to en­sure good hunting. They also made sacrifices for the same reasons.

Certain scholars have developed theories on how re­ligion began in prehistoric times. No one theory has been accepted by all scholars, but each major theory has contributed to an understanding of the subject. Leading theories were developed by Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Friedrich Max Muller, and Rudolf Otto.

Tylor's theory. Tylor was a British anthropologist of the 1800's. According to Tylor's theory, early people be­lieved that spirits dwelled in and controlled all things in nature. For example, they thought that spirits lived in such objects or forces as plants, the wind, volcanoes, and the sun. Tylor called the spirits animae, and his the­ory became known as animism.

Prehistoric people, Tylor said, explained such occur­rences as windstorms and the change from day to night as the actions of the spirits. Because many of the objects and forces were impressive or very powerful, people started to worship their spirits. According to Tylor, reli­gion originated in this worship.

Muller's theory. Muller, a German-born language scholar of the 1800's, is often considered the first histo­rian of religion. Muller agreed with Tylor that religion began as spirit worship. But he rejected Tylor's view that the earliest people believed spirits dwelled in nature. In­stead, Muller suggested that prehistoric people thought that the forces of nature themselves had human quali­ties, such as good or bad temper. People thus trans­formed these forces into deities. In this way, Muller ex­plained the earliest belief in gods.

Otto's theory. Otto was a German scholar of religion of the early 1900's. Otto believed that an awareness of holiness and mystery lies at the heart of religious experi­ence and is therefore the basis for all religions. In his view, all human beings possess the capacity for awe and recognize the power of the sacred. For Otto, the holy is

the true, the good, and the beautiful, a representation of a basic and universal aspect of being human.

History of the world's major religions

The eight major religions practised in the world today were either founded or developed their basic form be­tween about 600 B.C. and A.D. 600. The following discus­sion traces the history of each of these religions.

Judaism began among the ancient Israelites in the Middle East. Jewish tradition traces the roots of the reli­gion back to Abraham, who lived between about 1800 and 1500 B.C. His grandson jacob, who was also called Israel, had 12 sons. They founded the 12 tribes that be­came the Israelites. Over a period of time, many Israel­ites settled in Egypt, where they eventually became slaves. During the 1200s B.C., the great lawgiver Moses led them out of Egypt to Canaan (Palestine). Jewish tradi­tion also says that Moses received from God the first five books of the Bible, which are called the Pentateuch or the Torah. These books, sometimes known as the Mosaic Law, have been the basis of the Jewish religion.

Judaism was the first religion to teach the belief in one God. Some scholars say that the Jews became monotheistic during the time of Moses. But most schol­ars believe that Jewish prophets (religious teachers and thinkers) converted the Jews to monotheism by about 600 B.G

During Biblical times, first the Assyrians, then the Babylonians, and finally the Romans conquered the Isra­elites. Many Jews were driven into exile. Over the centu­ries, the Jewish people settled in various parts of the Middle East and in European countries. Everywhere, they were always a religious minority, and they were often persecuted for their faith.

After about 1800, Jews divided into three general groups—Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Jews observed rituals in traditional ways. Conservative and Reform Jews modernized certain practices. Most eastern European Jews followed Orthodox Judaism, and most western European and North American Jews fol­lowed Conservative or Reform Judaism.

In the 1930's, the German dictator Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party began a vicious campaign against Jews. By 1945, the Nazis had killed about 6 million of the 8 million to 9 million Jews in Europe. Many of the survivors joined Jews living in Palestine. Together, they established the state of Israel in 1948 under the sponsorship of the United Nations (UN). It was the first homeland Jews had known since Biblical times.

Hinduism began about 1500 B.C At that time, a cen­tral Asian people called the Aryans invaded and con­quered India. The Aryan culture gradually combined with the culture of a native people known as the Dravidians. Hinduism developed from a blend of the two cul­tures.

The oldest Hindu scriptures are the Vedas. They were composed over a period of 1,000 years, beginning about 1000 B.C. This stage in Hindu history is often called the Vedic period. During Vedic times, believers worshipped a number of nature deities. At the end of the period, the doctrines of reincarnation and karma were adopted.

By the 500's B.C., Hinduism was splitting into various schools of thought. Two of these schools—Buddhism and Jainism—became new religions. The Hindu schools further split into smaller sects. Today, Hinduism includes a great number of schools and sects. Many of the sects were formed by saints or gurus (spiritual teachers). Each sect has its own philosophy and form of worship. But they all accept basic Hindu doctrines.

Buddhism developed in India during the late 500's B.C from the teachings of a prince named Siddhartha Gautama. Gautama became known as Gautama Buddha, meaning Enlightened One. Buddhism was partly a rebel lion against certain features of Hinduism. Buddhism posed the Hindu worship of many deities, the Hindu emphasis on caste and the supernatural, and the power of the Hindu priest class.

Buddha taught that people should devote themselves to finding release from the suffering of life. Through this release, people would gain nirvana, a state of perfect peace and happiness. To achieve nirvana, they had to free themselves from all worldly desires and attach­ments to worldly things. Buddha taught that nirvana could be gained by following the Middle Way between the extremes of severe self-denial and uncontrolled pas­sion. As Buddha preached, he attracted a growing num­ber of followers. By the time of his death, about 483 B.C, Buddhism was firmly established in India.

Buddhism spread into central Asia. By the end of the A.D. 100's, it had been introduced into China. Buddhism swept through much of China from the 300's to the 50ffs, challenging the native Chinese religions of Confucian­ism and Taoism in popularity. In the 500's, Chinese Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism became the chief Japanese religion for the next 1,000 years.

Early in its history, Buddhism divided into two forms, Theravada and Mahayana. Today, Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Most Mahayana Buddhists live in Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Nepal, Tibet, Vietnam, and scattered parts of India and Russia.

Confucianism is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of Confucius, a philosopher who died about 479 B.C Confucianism has no organization or clergy. It does not teach a belief in a deity or in the existence of life after death. Confucianism stresses moral and political ideas. It emphasizes respect for ancestors and gov­ernment authority and teaches that rulers must govern according to high moral standards.

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism have been the major religions in China. But Confucianism has had the greatest impact on Chinese society. It was the state religion of China from the 100's B.C. until the A.D. 1900's. Chinese rulers approved of its emphasis on respect for authority and dedication to public service. Confucian scriptures called the Five Classics and Four Books served as the foundation of the Chinese educational system for centuries. Candidates applying for government jobs had to pass examinations based on these scrip­tures.

Beginning in the 1000s, a more philosophical ap­proach to Confucianism known as Neo-Confucianism became widely popular. Neo-Confucianism also influenced Japanese moral codes and philosophy from the 1600's through to the 1800s.

In 1949, the Chinese Communists gained control of China. The government officially condemned Confucianism, as well as other religions. As a result, most followers lived outside mainland China, especially in Taiwan.

In the late 197ffs, however, the Communist government relaxed its policy against religion, and so Confucianism has enjoyed a revival on the mainland.

Taoism, like Confucianism, is a native Chinese reli­gion. Its roots go back to the earliest history of China. However, Taoism did not begin to develop as an organ­ized religion until the 100's B.C.

Taoism teaches that everyone should try to achieve two goals, happiness and immortality. The religion has many practices and ceremonies intended to help peo­ple. They include prayer, magic, special diets, breath control, meditation, and recitation of scriptures. Taoists also believe in astrology, fortunetelling, witchcraft, and communication with the spirits of the dead.

Taoists worship more deities than do the followers of almost any other religion. Some deities are ancestors, and others are the spirits of famous people.

During its early history, Taoism borrowed heavily from Buddhism. Many Taoist deities, temples, and ce monies show the influence of Buddhism. By the A.D. 1000's, Taoism had divided into many sects. The mem bers of some of these sects withdrew from everyday to meditate and study in monasteries. Other sects wei based in temples. The temple priests passed their po: tions on to their children. The members of this heredi tary priesthood lived among the common people. Th< gained a reputation as highly skilled magicians who could tell the future and protect believers from Mines; accidents, and other misfortune.

Chinese governments of the early and mid-1900's o posed Taoism, claiming it was based on superstition. Today, the Chinese government permits the practice ( the religion and followers are gradually increasing in number. In addition, Taoists remain active in Chinese societies outside China, especially in Taiwan.

Shinto is the native religion of Japan. According to Shinto mythology, deities created Japan and its people. Until the mid-1900's, the Japanese worshipped their em­peror as a direct descendant of Amaterasu-Omikami, the sun goddess and most important Shinto deity.

Shinto developed from native folk beliefs. Followers worship spirits and demons that live in animals and in mountains, trees, and other parts of nature. In early Jap­anese history, Shinto was devoted chiefly to this form of nature worship. Beginning in the A.D. 500's, Buddhism influenced the development of Shinto. Confucianism be­came influential in the A.D. 600s. Both of these religions

helped shape Shinto rituals and doctrines. Buddhist and Shinto services have occasionally been held in the same temples. But unlike Buddhism, Shinto never developed strong doctrines on either salvation or life after death.

During the late 1800's, the Japanese government sponsored a form of Shinto called State Shinto. State Shinto stressed patriotic religious ceremonies and the divine origins of the emperor. In 1882, the government officially separated Shinto into State Shinto and Sectar­ian Shinto. The government administered State Shinto. Sectarian Shinto was popular among the common peo­ple. After World War II, the Japanese government abol­ished State Shinto and the doctrine that the emperor _was divine.

Christianity is based on the life and teachings of jesus Christ in Palestine. Most Christians believe that Cod sent Jesus to the world as the Saviour. Christianity teaches that humanity can achieve salvation through Jesus.

After Jesus' Crucifixion, a number of His followers spread His teachings. One of the most important of these followers was Saint Paul. After Paul's death, about A.D. 67, Christianity continued to grow in spite of perse­cution by the Romans, whose empire covered most of Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa. In the early 300's, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great became a Christian. By the late 300's, Christianity was widely practised throughout the empire.

During the Middle Ages, Christian missionaries con­verted many European barbarian tribes, which led to the Christian church's dominant influence on European life for centuries. For many years, a split had been develop­ing between Christians in western Europe and those in eastern Europe and western Asia. The split finally oc­curred in the 1000's. The churches in Greece, Russia, and other parts of eastern Europe and western Asia be­came known as the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The church in western Europe became known as the Roman Catholic Church.

In the 1500's, a religious movement called the Refor­mation divided western Christianity into several bodies. Most southern Europeans remained Roman Catholics. A great number of northern Europeans, known as Protes­tants, formed new churches. The largest include the Baptist, Congregationalist, Episcopal, Lutheran, Method­ist, and Presbyterian churches.

Beginning in the 1500's, Catholic missionaries con­verted many people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas to Christianity. Protestant missionaries became active in the 1600's and made converts in the Far East, Africa, and North America.

Islam is based on the life and teachings of the prophet Muhammad, who lived in Arabia during the early A.D. 600's. Before Muhammad's time, the people in the region worshipped Allah (God) as well as other dei­ties. But Muhammad said Allah was the only God.

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad had the first of several visions about 610. The vision occurred while Muhammad was meditating in a cave on Mount Hira, a hill near his birthplace of Mecca, in what is now Saudi Arabia. The vision commanded Muhammad to preach the message of Allah to the people of his coun­try. He began preaching in Mecca. A tribe called the Quraysh controlled Mecca and opposed Muhammad.

To avoid persecution by the Quraysh, Muhammad fled to the city of Medina. Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Medina is called the Hegira and is one of the central events in the founding of Islam.

In 630, Muhammad led an army to Mecca. He offered the people of the city generous peace terms. As a result, his forces were able to take the city with little resistance. Muhammad made Mecca the sacred city and centre of Islam.

After Muhammad's death in 632, his friend and disci­ple Abu Bakr became the first caliph (leader) of Islam. Abu Bakr defeated a rebellion against his rule by Arabian tribes and began a campaign of religious conquest outside Arabia. Succeeding caliphs continued Abu Bakr's conquests. Within 100 years of Muhammad's death, Islam had spread throughout the Middle East, across northern Africa, and into Spain. In 732, Muslim and Christian armies fought a major battle near Tours, France. The Muslims were defeated, and western Eu­rope remained Christian.

Muslim missionaries and traders carried Islam to India and other parts of Asia. From the 1000's to the 1200's, Islam spread into western Africa. Today, Islam is the major religion of nearly all countries in northern Af­rica and the Middle East. It is also the chief religion in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan.

Religion today

Religion in the West has been severely criticized in the 1900's. Numerous critics charge that many religious doctrines have become dry and uninspiring and no longer satisfy spiritual needs. Critics have also claimed that traditional religions fail to deal with current social issues and that they support outdated moral attitudes. Some religious groups have tried to meet society's needs and problems. For example, most religions have traditionally prohibited the ordination of women as clergy and from other leadership positions. For many women, these limitations left their spiritual needs unful­filled. Many Christian denominations and groups in Ju­daism now allow women roles which are equal to those of men. Christians also see the ecumenical movement in Christianity as a positive step toward bringing a spirit of cooperation and renewal to Western religion (see Prot­estantism).

Many people throughout the world have, since the mid-1900's, turned to a stricter interpretation of their re­ligion. They look for the fundamental (basic) principles of their belief and hope to live their lives by such princi­ples. in Christian denominations, this means accepting every word of the Bible as divinely inspired. Christian fundamentalists (strict observers) have had great social and political influence in the United States. Christian fundamentalist leaders include television evangelists.

Hindu fundamentalists have gained political impor­tance in India. In 1992, extremists who were responsible for the destruction of a Muslim mosque built on the re­mains of a Hindu shrine in the town of Ayodhya, gained many followers. Their action angered local Muslims.

The meetings of such extremists have stirred up riots.

Islam and Judaism have also developed strong funda­mentalist movements, both in the West and in the Mid­dle East. Islamic revivalists (people who seek to re­awaken the faith) have achieved political influence in such countries as Algeria, Egypt, and Iran. Hasidism is gaining a large number of followers among Jews in Is­rael and the United States (see Hasidism).

Some of the strict observers of any religion are un­able to accept the beliefs of others. Many violent con­frontations, even wars, have come about as a result of religious intolerance.

Seeking a more peaceful way of life, some people in the West have turned to new religions or movements, or to religions whose origins are in the East. A large number of people have sought fulfilment in the teach­ings of Asian religions. Some of these people have been attracted to Zen, a form of Buddhism that emphasizes meditation.

Some Westerners have turned to other kinds of supernatural teachings, some to astrology, spiritualism, or paganism. Astrology is based on the belief that the plan­ets and other heavenly bodies influence human affairs. Spiritualists believe that it is possible to communicate with the spirits of the dead. Pagans find inspiration from a range of ancient religious cults.

Religious Life

Religious life is a term for the way of life that some people choose for becoming as holy as possible and for being of the greatest possible service to others. Those who adopt this manner of life are called monks, nuns, brothers or sisters—or simply religious. Some may be priests or ministers. But most followers of the religious life are not members of the clergy.

Followers of the religious life devote themselves ex­clusively to holiness and service. Unlike ascetics and hermits, who also strive for holiness, they belong to reli­gious orders (see Asceticism; Hermit). The members of many orders live together in a community under a reli­gious superior. These communities are called convents, though those where monks live may be known as mon­asteries, and most nuns live in nunneries. After one or more years of training and testing, candidates are admit­ted into the community. In most cases, the candidates vow to stay until they die. Generally, a final commitment is made only after several years of living under tempo­rary vows or promises.

All religious communities were founded to advance the spiritual life of their members. Contemplative orders concentrate on this role and have an organized daily routine with ascetic practices and many hours of prayer. Active communities engage in social and spiritual work in schools, hospitals, and orphanages. But even the most active community is basically dedicated to promoting the holiness of its members.

Christian communities

Religious life among Christians started with the prac­tice and teachings of Jesus. His voluntary poverty, His celibacy (remaining unmarried), and His obedience to God's will became the pattern for the religious life.

The Roman Catholic Church. Persecution in the early Christian church prevented the development of or­ganized religious orders in the Roman Empire. How­ever, many hermits practised poverty, remained unmar­ried, and lived alone in the desert. St. Paul the Hermit and St. Anthony of Thebes were dominant figures in this early stage of the religious life. Both lived in Egypt.

In the early 300's, St. Pachomius organized a religious community in south Egypt. He wrote a rule (programme of life) for monks who wished to live together under a superior. Shortly before his death, there were 40 monas­teries with 2,000 monks under his direction. Later in the 30ffs, St. Basil of Caesarea adopted the rule of Pacho­mius and made his monasteries in Asia Minor homes of charity. The monasteries included orphanages, hospi­tals, farms, and places of rest.

St. Benedict of Nursia was the father of Christian mo- nasticism in the West. His policies of the 500s became the pattern for religious life in Europe and America. The Benedictine approach emphasized attachment to a sin­gle monastery, community living, and labour. Eastern monasticism, on the other hand, stressed austere physi­cal living and severe discipline. Today, Eastern Orthodox religious life still favours the pattern of St. Pachomius and St. Basil, and the Roman Catholic Church prefers that of St. Benedict.

During the early 1200s, St. Francis of Assisi began a new practice in religious life by encouraging his follow­ers to travel about the countryside, preaching and help­ing the needy. Also around 1200, St. Dominic estab­lished the Order of Preachers to teach in schools and colleges. In 1534, St. Ignatius Loyola founded the )esuits "to extend the Kingdom of Christ" to all parts of the world. Early Jesuits included missionaries sueh as St.

Francis Xavier in India, and such explorers as Jacques Marquette in America.

During the 1500^rs and 1600s, as a result of the Protes- f| tant Reformation and an expansion of learning, new Roman Catholic orders were established to try to meet every humanitarian need. St. Angela Merici founded the Ursulines in Italy. Louise de Marillac and St. Vincent de Paul started the Sisters of Charity in France. St. Jean Bap­tiste de la Salle founded the Christian Brothers in France as a community of teachers.

Today, there are about 1 i million members of Catho­lic religious communities throughout the world.

Vatican Council II, which met from 1962 to 1965, urged religious communities to adapt themselves "to the changed conditions of our time." As a result, the communities started a period of adjustment. Encour­aged by the Vatican, women in the communities have adapted their clothing and many of their customs to the practical needs of modern life. The practice of poverty in wealthy societies and of obedience in democratic cul­tures is being modified. However, a balance has not yet been reached between the demands of the present day and the unchangeable principles of Christian perfection.

The Eastern Orthodox Churches regard monasti cism as an essential feature of their tradition. Until the 190ffs, Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns rarely took part in teaching, preaching, or the ministry. Practically all Eastern Orthodox religions follow the teachings of St Basil. Two characteristics of Eastern Orthodox monaster­ies are liturgical worship and fasting. Membership in these communities is about 30,000, of whom two-thirds are women.

Of the estimated 550 Orthodox monasteries in Europe and Asia, the most famous is probably the monastic re­public of Mount Athos in Greece. There are 20 monas­teries on the mountain. Eleven of them follow the cenobitic rule, and nine observe the idiorrhythmic rule—the Eastern Orthodox monasticism In general. The cenobitic rule calls for community life under an abbot elected for life. The idiorrhythmic rule provides for monasteries directed by trustees who are elected annually. It gives monks greater freedom in mat­ters of poverty and daily activities.

Protestant churches. Protestant leaders did not encourage religious life under vows during the Reforma­tion of the 1500s. However, a Lutheran Augustinian monastery at Mollenbeck, Germany, existed until 1675. Protestant groups called Pietists, such as the Bohemian Brethren, organized in 1722 in Moravia, formed partially monastic communities that later influenced European and American Protestantism.

By the mid-1800's, certain Protestant denominations had reestablished religious communities. A Lutheran community of deaconesses was organized in Germany in 1836. In England, an Anglican group for men was founded in 1842, and one for women was set up in 1845. In 1940, the Taize community in France was formed under Lutheran and Reformed sponsorship. Today, there are several thousand members in about 100 Prot­estant religious communities throughout the world. The majority of these Protestant communities are Episcopa­lian.

Other communities

Among the major world religions, only Hinduism and Buddhism have developed traditions that correspond in some ways to the Christian religious life. The beliefs and practices of Islam and Judaism do not include religious orders or separate communities of monks and nuns.

Hinduism. The closest Hindu equivalent to Christian religious life is the sannyasi, the fourth and last stage of a Hindu's life. With advancing age, a Hindu man, alone or with his wife, may retire from active life. He prays, practices severely simple living, and finally reaches a state of spiritual perfection.

Buddhism. Buddha made monasticism an insepara­ble part of his creed. He planned his religion as a mo­nastic order headed by himself. As Buddhism expanded, members of the laity were included. But they had to af­firm their belief in the Sangha (monastic order) as strongly as their faith in Buddha and his creed.

According to Buddha, "There are two kinds of gifts, the gift of material things and the gift of Dharma, (the law). Of these two, the gift of the law is preeminent." An example of the first kind of gift-giving would be monks or nuns living in a community where they own material things in common. An example of the second type would be monks and nuns teaching the methods which must be used in order to attain the state of nirvana (per­fect happiness).

There were several thousand Buddhist monasteries in China before the Chinese Communists conquered the country in the 1940's. Buddhist monasticism was changed drastically after the Communist take-over of China, Vietnam, and Tibet. The Communists have al­lowed some monasteries to function in these countries —if the members cultivate an assigned portion of land and raise a quota of crops.

In non-Communist Asia, Buddhist monasticism varies. The greatest differences exist between the Hinayana and Mahayana orders. Hinayana communities have a stricter daily life, and members spend much time in meditation. Most Hinayana communities are in Southeast Asia. Ma­hayana communities are more active in welfare and edu­cation, and are centred in Japan and China.

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