LEE Kuan Yew

Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore’s first prime minister and architect of the tiny
 south-east Asian city-state’s rapid rise from British tropical outpost to 
global trade and financial centre, died early on Monday, 
aged 91 (March 23, 2015)

Lee Kuan Yew, Founding Father and First Premier of Singapore, Dies at 91 / By SETH MYDANS / Monday/March 22, 2015

SINGAPORE — Lee Kuan Yew, who transformed the tiny outpost of Singapore into one of Asia’s wealthiest and least corrupt countries as its founding father and first prime minister, died here on Monday. He was 91.

His death, at the Singapore General Hospital, was announced by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, Mr. Lee’s eldest son.

Mr. Lee was prime minister from 1959, when Singapore gained full self-government from the British, until 1990, when he stepped down. Late into his life he remained the dominant personality and driving force in what he called a First World oasis in a Third World region.

The nation reflected the man: efficient, unsentimental, incorrupt, inventive, forward-looking and pragmatic.

“We are ideology-free,” Mr. Lee said in an interview with The New York Times in 2007, stating what had become, in effect, Singapore’s ideology. “Does it work? If it works, let’s try it. If it’s fine, let’s continue it. If it doesn’t work, toss it out, try another one.”

His leadership was criticized for suppressing freedom, but the formula succeeded. Singapore became an admired international business and financial center.

An election in 2011 marked the end of the Lee Kuan Yew era, with a voter revolt against the ruling People’s Action Party. Mr. Lee resigned from the specially created post of minister mentor and stepped into the background as the nation began exploring the possibilities of a more engaged and less autocratic government.

Since Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965 — an event Mr. Lee called his “moment of anguish” — he had seen himself in a never-ending struggle to overcome the nation’s lack of natural resources, a potentially hostile international environment and a volatile ethnic mix of Chinese, Malays and Indians.

“To understand Singapore and why it is what it is, you’ve got to start off with the fact that it’s not supposed to exist and cannot exist,” he said in the 2007 interview. “To begin with, we don’t have the ingredients of a nation, the elementary factors: a homogeneous population, common language, common culture and common destiny. So, history is a long time. I’ve done my bit.”

His “Singapore model” included centralized power, clean government and economic liberalism. But it was also criticized as a soft form of authoritarianism, suppressing political opposition, imposing strict limits on free speech and public assembly, and creating a climate of caution and self-censorship. The model has been studied by leaders elsewhere in Asia, including China, and the subject of many academic case studies.

The commentator Cherian George described Mr. Lee’s leadership as “a unique combination of charisma and fear.”

As Mr. Lee’s influence waned, the questions were how much and how fast his model might change in the hands of a new, possibly more liberal generation. Some even asked, as he often had, whether Singapore, a nation of 5.6 million, could survive in a turbulent future.

Mr. Lee was a master of so-called “Asian values,” in which the good of society takes precedence over the rights of the individual and citizens cede some autonomy in return for paternalistic rule.

Generally passive in political affairs, Singaporeans sometimes chide themselves as being overly preoccupied with a comfortable lifestyle, which they sum up as the “Five C’s” — cash, condo, car, credit card, country club.

In recent years, though, a confrontational world of political websites and blogs has given new voice to critics of Mr. Lee and his system.

Even among people who knew little of Singapore, Mr. Lee was famous for his national self-improvement campaigns, which urged people to do such things as smile, speak good English and flush the toilet, but never to spit, chew gum or throw garbage off balconies.

“They laughed, at us,” he said in the second volume of his memoirs, “From Third World to First: The Singapore Story 1965-2000.” “But I was confident that we would have the last laugh. We would have been a grosser, ruder, cruder society had we not made these efforts.”

Mr. Lee developed a distinctive Singaporean mechanism of political control, filing libel suits that sometimes drove his opponents into bankruptcy and doing battle with critics in the foreign press. Several foreign publications, including The International Herald Tribune, which is now called The International New York Times, have apologized and paid fines to settle libel suits.

The lawsuits challenged accusations of nepotism — members of Mr. Lee’s family hold influential positions in Singapore — and questions about the independence of the judiciary, which its critics say follows the lead of the executive branch.

Mr. Lee denied that the suits had a political purpose, saying they were essential to clearing his name of false accusations.

He seemed to believe that criticism would gain currency if it were not challenged vigorously. But the lawsuits themselves did as much as anything to diminish his reputation.

Mr. Lee was proud to describe himself as a political street fighter more feared than loved.

“Nobody doubts that if you take me on, I will put on knuckle-dusters and catch you in a cul-de-sac,” he said in 1994. “If you think you can hurt me more than I can hurt you, try. There is no other way you can govern a Chinese society.”

A jittery public avoided openly criticizing Mr. Lee and his government and generally obeyed its dictates.

“Singaporeans are like a flea,” said Mr. Lee’s political tormentor, J.B. Jeyaretnam, who was financially broken by libel suits but persisted in opposition until his death in 2008. “They are trained to jump so high and no farther. Once they go higher they’re slapped down.”

In an interview in 2005, Mr. Jeyaretnam added: “There’s a climate of fear in Singapore. People are just simply afraid. They feel it everywhere. And because they’re afraid they feel they can’t do anything.”

Mr. Lee’s vehicle of power was the People’s Action Party, or P.A.P., which exercised the advantages of office to overwhelm and intimidate opponents. It embraced into its ranks the nation’s brightest young stars, creating what was, in effect, a one-party state.

To remove the temptation for corruption, Singapore linked the salaries of ministers, judges and top civil servants to those of leading professionals in the private sector, making them some of the highest-paid government officials in the world.

It was only in 1981, 16 years after independence, that Mr. Jeyaretnam won the first opposition seat in Parliament, infuriating Mr. Lee. Two decades later, after the 2006 election, just two of the Parliament’s 84 elected seats were held by members of opposition parties.

But in 2011, the opposition won an unprecedented six seats, along with an unusually high popular vote of close to 40 percent, in what was seen as a demand by voters for more accountability and responsiveness in its leaders. Pragmatic as always, the P.A.P. reacted by modifying its peremptory style and acknowledging that times were changing.

But the new approach still fell short of true multiparty democracy, and Singaporeans continued to question whether the party intended to change itself or would even be able to do so.

“Many people say, ‘Why don’t we open up, then you have two big parties and one party always ready to take over?’ “ Mr. Lee said in a speech in 2008. “I do not believe that for a single moment.”

He added: “We do not have the numbers to ensure that we’ll always have an A Team and an alternative A Team. I’ve tried it; it’s just not possible.”

What Singapore got was centralized, efficient policy making and social campaigns unencumbered by what Mr. Lee called the “heat and dust” of political clashes.

One government campaign tried to combat a falling birthrate by organizing, in effect, an official matchmaking agency aimed particularly at affluent ethnic Chinese.

Mr. Lee also promoted the use of English as the language of business and the common tongue among the ethnic groups, while recognizing Malay, Chinese and Tamil as other official languages.

With tourists and investors in mind, Singapore sought to become a cultural and recreational hub, with a sprawling performing arts center, museums, galleries, Western and Chinese orchestras and not one but two casinos.

Despite his success, Mr. Lee said that he sometimes had trouble sleeping and that he calmed himself each night with 20 minutes of meditation, reciting a mantra: “Ma-Ra-Na-Tha.”

“The problem is to keep the monkey mind from running off into all kinds of thoughts,” he said in an interview with The Times in 2010. “A certain tranquillity settles over you. The day’s pressures and worries are pushed out. Then there’s less problem sleeping.”

Lee Kuan Yew, who was sometimes known by his English name, Harry Lee, was born in Singapore on Sept. 16, 1923, to a fourth-generation, middle-class Chinese family.

He worked as a translator and engaged in black market trading during the Japanese occupation in World War II, then went to Britain, where he earned a law degree in 1949 from Cambridge University. In 1950 he married Kwa Geok Choo, a fellow law student from Singapore. She died in 2010.

After serving as prime minister from 1959 to 1990, Mr. Lee was followed by two handpicked successors, Goh Chok Tong and Mr. Lee’s eldest son, Lee Hsien Loong. Groomed for the job, the younger Mr. Lee has been prime minister since 2004.

Besides the prime minister, Mr. Lee is survived by his younger son, Lee Hsien Yang, who is the chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore; a daughter, Dr. Lee Wei Ling, who runs the National Neuroscience Institute; a younger brother, Suan Yew; and a younger sister, Monica.

Ho Ching, the wife of the prime minister, is executive director and chief executive of Temasek Holdings, a government holding company.

“His stature is immense,” Catherine Lim, a novelist and frequent critic of Mr. Lee, said in an interview. “This man is a statesman. He is probably too big for Singapore, on a level with Tito and de Gaulle. If they had three Lee Kuan Yews in Africa, that continent wouldn’t be in such a bad state.”

The cost of his success, she said, was a lack of emotional connection.

“Everything goes tick-tock, tick-tock,” she said. “He is an admirable man, but, oh, people like a little bit of heart as well as head. He is all hard-wired.”

In the 2010 interview with The Times, though, he took a reflective, valedictory tone.

“I’m not saying that everything I did was right, but everything I did was for an honorable purpose,” he said. “I had to do some nasty things, locking fellows up without trial.”

He said that he was not a religious man and that he dealt with setbacks by simply telling himself, “Well, life is just like that.”

Mr. Lee maintained a careful diet and exercised for most of his life, but he admitted to feeling the signs of age and to a touch of weariness at the self-imposed rigor of his life.

“I’m reaching 87, trying to keep fit, presenting a vigorous figure, and it’s an effort, and is it worth the effort?” he said. “I laugh at myself trying to keep a bold front. It’s become my habit. So I just carry on.”

Singapore's founding father Lee Kuan Yew dies at 91

Lee Kuan Yew, the statesman who transformed Singapore from a small port city into a wealthy global hub, has died at the age of 91.

Monday/23March 2015

The city-state's prime minister for 31 years, he was widely respected as the architect of Singapore's prosperity.

But he was criticised for his iron grip on power. Under him freedom of speech was tightly restricted and political opponents were targeted by the courts.

A state funeral will be held on 29 March, after a week of mourning.

In an emotional televised address, his son Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong paid tribute to him.

"He fought for our independence, built a nation where there was none, and made us proud to be Singaporeans. We won't see another man like him."

Mr Lee oversaw Singapore's independence from Britain and separation from Malaysia. His death was announced early on Monday. He had been in hospital for several weeks with pneumonia and was on life support.

UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said he was "deeply saddened" by Mr Lee's death. US President Barack Obama described him as a "giant of history". The Chinese foreign ministry called him "a uniquely influential statesman in Asia".

'Lifetime of building'

In Singapore, a steady stream of people arrived at the hospital and the Istana, the prime minister's office, to offer their condolences.

A charismatic figure, Mr Lee co-founded the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed Singapore since 1959, and was its first prime minister.

The Cambridge-educated lawyer led Singapore through merger with, and then separation from, Malaysia.

Speaking after the split in 1965, he pledged to build a meritocratic, multi-racial nation. But tiny Singapore - with no natural resources - needed a new economic model.

"We knew that if we were just like our neighbours, we would die," Mr Lee told the New York Times in 2007.

"We had to produce something which is different and better than what they have." e,

At the scene: Jonathan Head, BBC News, Singapore

As the long wait for the inevitable continued, the floral tributes piled up right outside the city-state's main hospital, often laid by tearful, older Singaporeans who truly see this sharp-tongued, tough-minded man as a father figure.

And while there were many affectionate comments from well-wishers, there was still some fear of this extraordinary leader, who has dominated Singapore for the whole of its independent existence, and once threatened to rise from the grave if he saw things happening that he did not like.

For all of its impressive successes, this is still a country with Lee Kuan Yew's imprint visible everywhere. He was unapologetic about the repressive measures he used to impose order, and unapologetic about believing his prescriptions alone were the right ones. No-one is quite sure what direction Singapore will now take without him.

Mr Lee set about creating a highly educated work force fluent in English, and reached out to foreign investors to turn Singapore into a manufacturing hub.

The city-state grew wealthy and later developed into a major financial centre.

But building a nation came with tight controls - and one of Mr Lee's legacies was a clampdown on the press, tight restrictions that remain in place today.

Dissent - and political opponents - were ruthlessly quashed. Today, Mr Lee's PAP remains firmly in control. There are currently six opposition lawmakers in parliament.

Other measures, such as corporal punishment, a ban on chewing gum and the government's foray into matchmaking for Singapore's brightest - to create smarter babies - led to perceptions of excessive state interference.

But Mr Lee remained unmoved.

"Whoever governs Singapore must have that iron in him. Or give it up," he told a rally in 1980. "I've spent a whole lifetime building this and as long as I'm in charge, nobody is going to knock it down."

The city of Singapore is built around its harbour. Singapore is the busiest port in Southeast Asia. The city's tall buildings form an impressive skyline overlooking the harbour.

Chinese people form the majority of Singapore's population. Some Chinese people make colourful figures to celebrate the seventh-month festival.

The Parliament building houses Singapore's legisla­ture, which has 81 members.

The oldest Hindu temple in Singapore is Sri Mariamman Temple. It is located on South Bridge Road.

Buddhist temples serve Singapore's Buddhists, most of whom belong to the Mahayana school of Buddhism.

Deaf children attend special classes. Singapore has a highly developed social welfare system for handicapped children.

A Chinese opera is staged in the Tiger Balm Gardens. Arts and cultural festivals are en­couraged by Singapore's Min­istry of Community Develop­ment, and other groups.

Singapore's port is the busi­est in Southeast Asia. Small craft crowd the harbour, which is visited each year by more than 30,000 vessels.

Older housing includes shophouses, which people use both as residences and business quarters

New public housing is provided by the Housing and Development Board. The Bishan West Estate is strikingly modern.

The Clifford Centre is a waterfront development in Singapore.

Orchard Road is a beautiful street lined by fine buildings in the central Singapore business district.

Water pipelines from Malay­sia carry water to Singapore.

Singapore is made up of one large island and 50 smaller ones. Most of the land lies near sea level. About half of the land area is built upon, but another 40 per cent is given over to open spaces such as parks.

Singapore's container port operates as fast at night as in the daytime. The Taujong Pagar Terminal can unload and load a ship in less than nine hours.

Container handling equipment is controlled by an advanced computerized handling system.

Singapore's harbour, with its busy container port, domi­nates Singapore's economy. It handles goods or raw materi­als from most of the countries in the world, and operates both day and night.

Orchids grow in a commer­cial nursery at Mandai. Singa­pore nurseries export orchids to Australia, Europe, Japan, and the United States.

Electronic products, including many types of telecommunica­tions equipment, are manufactured in Singapore.

Electrical products manufactured in Singapore form a major part of the country's exports.

Tiger Balm Gardens have long been popular with tour­ists, who admire the statues that depict Chinese myths and legends.

The Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system has two lines and 42 stations, 15 of them underground. Each six-car electric train carries up to 1,800 passengers.

Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of modern Singa­pore, is commemorated by a statue on the site of his 1819 landing on the bank of the Singapore River.

Mangrove swamps, which covered the banks of the Singa­pore River before settlement, now survive only in a few places.

A Fragment of the Singapore Stone, an ancient monolith, is preserved in the National Museum.

Traditional Malay houses are raised on stilts above the water and connected by wooden walkways.

Singapore in 1835 was vis­ited by sailing ships, such as this East Indiaman, a merchant vessel of the British East India Company.

The Padang in 1851 was a meeting place for Europeans. They walked, played games, or listened to the band.

Singapore waterfront in 1861 was the scene of great activity. Singapore had 82,000 people and was becoming busier.

The Singapore River in the early 1900's was crammed with small boats.

Bullock carts were used in the early 1900's to carry goods handled by the growing port of Singapore.

Japanese troops marched through the streets of Singapore city, after their invasion and swift vic­tory in 1942.

Lee Kuan Yew, seen addressing banquet guests in Lon­don, led Singapore to independence and prosperity.

Important dates in Singapore

1819 Modern Singapore was founded by Sir Stamford Raffles.

1822 Raffles planned a new town.

1827 Serangoon Road is built—the first road across Singapore island.

1830 Straits Settlements, including Singapore, was put under control of British administration in Bengal, India.

1859 Fort Canning was built. The first ship repair dock was built by Captain William Cloughton.

1867 Straits Settlements became a British crown colony.

1869 The Suez Canal was opened. In the next ten years, Singa­pore's shipping trade increased by four times.

1877 William Pickering was appointed protector of the Chinese.

1914 Johor was the last Malay state to come under British con­trol.

1923 A road causeway linked Singapore with Johor Bahru in the Malay states.

1942 The Japanese captured Singapore.

1946 Singapore became a separate crown colony.

1959 Singapore became self-governing, though Britain retained control of defence and foreign affairs.

1963 Singapore joined the Federation of Malaysia.

1965 Singapore became a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations.

1971 The last UK troops left Singapore. Singapore joined a new defensive alliance with Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.

Singapore

Singapore is a small island country in Southeast Asia. It lies at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula where the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean meet. Singa­pore is about 140 kilometres north of the equator. Singa­pore has an area of 639.1 square kilometres. It consists of a large island and more than 50 smaller islands. The large island, which is also called Singapore, covers an area of 573 square kilometres. It is 42 kilometres long and 23 kilometres across at its widest point. About half of the smaller islands of Singapore are uninhabited. Some of the islands have been developed for recreation and tourism.

Singapore is a city-state (see City-state). Almost all of Singapore is urbanized— that is, covered by buildings or city facilities such as parks. Singapore is a crowded and bustling centre of manufacturing, trade, and finance.

The main business and administrative section of the city is on the main island. There are many modern buildings which tower above the warehouses and docks of the port. Singapore is Southeast Asia's main port, and the busiest port in the world in terms of shipping tonnage. Singapore is one of the most prosperous countries in Asia. Its people enjoy high standards of health, educa­tion, housing, transportation, and telecommunications.

Government

Singapore is a republic. An 81-member, one-house Parliament makes the country's laws. A prime minister and a cabinet carry out the operations of government. A president serves as head of state. The president has some controls over government finances and makes key civil service appointments. Since 1993, the president has been directly elected by the people to serve a six-year term. Elections are held every five years to choose mem­bers of Parliament (MPs). Every citizen over 21 years of age can vote. The president appoints as prime minister the MP who commands the confidence of the majority of other members.

The government has a major role in Singapore's economy. There are many official bodies which ensure the smooth development of the economy. The govern­ment decides what benefits, such as holidays and sick pay, must be provided for workers. A national pension or provident fund provides social security. Employees and employers contribute monthly to a central social se­curity fund, managed by the government.

Political parties. Singapore's largest political party is the People's Action Party (PAP). It came to power in 1959. From 1968 to 1981, the PAP held all the seats in Parlia­ment. Since 1981, it has held almost all the seats. There are more than 20 other registered political parties. In the 1988 elections, only 4 out of the 81 seats went to mem­bers of opposition parties. From September 1992, 6 new Nominated Members of Parliament (NMPs) were ap­pointed as opposition members.

Courts. The Supreme Court and lower courts, includ­ing district and magistrate's courts, administer justice. The president, on the advice of the prime minister, ap­points eight judges to the Supreme Court.

Armed services. Singapore has about 55,000 people in its army, navy, and air force. A further 200,000 people serve as reserves. Men aged 18 and over must serve from 2 to 2} years in the armed forces.

International relations. Singapore belongs to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which also includes Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philip­pines, and Thailand. See Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

People

Singapore is one of the world's most densely popu­lated countries. For the total population, see the Singa­pore in brief table with this article. At the end of the 1980's, the population was growing at 1.9 per cent a year. In the 1940's and 1950fs, the birth rate was over4 per cent a year, one of the highest in the world. A birth control campaign begun in the 1960's was so effective that the birth rate fell below replacement level. The gov­ernment now encourages families to have more than two children if they can afford it. People below 15 years of age formed 23 per cent of the population by 1990.

Most of Singapore's people are the descendants of migrants who came from China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and India in the 1800's and early 1900's. More than 75 per cent of the population are Chinese. Malays make up about 15 per cent, and Indians 7 per cent. The rest are mainly Eurasian. There are four official languages: Eng­lish, Chinese (Mandarin), Malay, and Tamil. Malay is the national language. English is the language used in gov­ernment and the main language used in schools and colleges. Newspapers, and radio and television broad­casts, are in each of the four official languages.

Religion. Singapore has no official religion. The country's constitution guarantees freedom of religion. The main religions practised are Islam, mainly by Ma­lays; Buddhism and Taoism, mainly by Chinese; Hindu­ism and Sikhism, mainly by Indians; and Christianity, mainly by Chinese, Indians, and Eurasians. Festivals of

each religious group are observed as public holidays.

Education. About 90 per cent of the people of Singa­pore can read and write. This is one of the highest liter­acy rates in Southeast Asia. Children attend school from the age of 6, and many continue until 16. Primary educa­tion is free for six years for all children who are citizens of Singapore. Besides English, children also learn one other official language. About 50 per cent are literate in two to three languages. Colleges of higher education in­clude the National University of Singapore, the Nanyang Technological University, and several polytechnics.

Clothing. Singapore's ethnic groups create a variety of cultures within the country. Most people wear West­

ern style clothing, but some Indians and Malays prefer their traditional dress.

Food. Restaurants in Singapore offer a variety of Chi­nese, Indian, and Malay dishes. Western foods are also I available, including American-style fast foods. The larger hotels and restaurants also serve a variety of interna­tional foods including Mexican, Thai, and Vietnamese.

Culture. Art, music, and theatre reflect the cultures of the various groups. Cultural events include Chinese op­eras, Indian dancing, and Malay dramas. Performances by the Singapore Symphony Orchestra are also popular.

A festival of arts staged every two years attracts interna­tional groups and artists to Singapore.

City

The city of Singapore lies on the southern coast of Singapore island. More than 90 per cent of the country's people live in the city. The city is built around its har­bour. Singapore is the world's busiest port in terms of tonnage. Warehouses and concrete docks line the port. Singapore is a free port— that is, goods can be un­loaded, stored, and reshipped without payment of im­port duties. In the crowded commercial district, modern skyscrapers tower over traditional Chinese shops. Sin­gapore's oldest buildings date from the 1800s. One ex­ample is the National Museum.

Like many other cities with a colonial history, Singa­pore developed around its harbour. The British began the development of Singapore's port in the early 1800's. Immigrants settled around the port area. Colonial plan­ners allocated a separate section of the city to each of the major ethnic groups.

Housing. In Chinatown and in other ethnic sections, people built shophouses. These buildings, usually two storeys high, were built on long narrow plots of land. The ground floor was used for business purposes—the shop—and the upper floor as living space—the house. From this comes the name—"shophouse." The shop had a narrow front opening onto the street The rest of the building stretched back as much as 65 metres, and was used for storage. Many shophouses can still be seen.

During the late 1800's and 1900's, Singapore's trade expanded. More and more migrants arrived in the coun­try. Many of these new settlers crowded into the central area. People added extra rooms on top of or on either side of existing shophouses. They divided up their living space into tiny cubicles. In this way, a building designed for one family became home to as many as seven fami­lies. This overcrowding caused public health and sanita­tion problems.

People in rural districts traditionally lived in kampongs (small villages). At one time, they lived in wooden houses with roofs of palm thatch, called attap. Later roofs were made of zinc metal sheets instead of thatch. Many of these country people made a living in market gardening or fishing.

By the late 1940's, overcrowding in the central area had spilled over into surrounding districts. Singapore had one of the world's worst slum problems. Squatter settlements sprang up around the city centre. Wealthy residents moved out of the city centre and built new homes in outlying districts. There was no low-cost pub­lic housing for poorer residents.

In 1960, the Singapore government set up the Hous­ing and Development Board to provide low-cost public housing for people resettled from slum squatter hous­ing in the central area of the city. The new homes were in high-rise estates, designed on the "neighbourhood" concept, like the new towns built in some European countries in the 1950's. Each neighbourhood housed from 1,000 to 5,000 families. Each of these estates had its own schools, markets, shops, and playgrounds. These estates were within about 30 minutes' commuting dis­tance of the main employment zones within the central area of the city.

Singapore has continued to build high-rise public housing, at costs below the market price of private homes. The later new towns have better facilities. Flats are constructed to higher standards and with better ma­terials. Estates are served by public transportation, through buses and the MRT (Mass tfapid Transit) rail system. Many estates have light industries close by. Al­most 87 per cent of Singapore's citizens live in public housing estates or new towns, located in every part of the island.

Central Singapore was redeveloped as a commercial centre as slums were cleared. The central area is known locally as the Golden Shoe. The port area, with its ware­houses and docks, is nearby. The main shopping and hotel district is in a separate section. Tall office build­ings, shopping complexes, and luxury apartments are found throughout the central area. Cultural activities such as drama, ballet, and concerts are held frequently within the city. The traditional wayang theatre is also popular (see Wayang).

Conservation. Singapore has designated older tradi­tional areas and buildings as conservation sites. These sites are protected in some cases from redevelopment. The colonial heart of the city, including the Raffles Hotel,

Chinatown, Little India, and the Malay district known as the Kampong Glam has been preserved.

Recreation. With most of its population living in high-density high-rise housing, there is a big demand for open space for recreation in Singapore. The main recreational areas are along the northeast, east, and west coasts. All public housing estates have open spaces, sports facilities, and parks. There are small open spaces all over the city.

Industrial areas. Many major industries have moved to Jurong, a large industrial estate on the southwestern coast. There are smaller industrial estates, and research and office parks in suburban areas around Singapore.

Land

Most of the land of the islands of Singapore lies near sea level. The highest point, Bukit Timah Hill, is only 177 metres above sea level. Almost 50 per cent of the total land area is built upon. About 40 per cent is made up of open spaces such as parks, quarries, military bases, in­land waters, and unused land. Only 2 per cent of Singa­pore's land area is given over to farming. Many local farmers are adopting high-technology methods, such as hydroponics— growing plants in chemical solutions without soil—to boost food production.

Igneous rock is found in the hilly central and north- central region. Sedimentary rocks are found in the west and south. There are sand and gravel deposits in the flatter eastern region. More recent layers of rocks lie over all three of these ancient rock types.

Plants and animals. Vegetation in Singapore has been altered by human settlement. Rainforests once covered most of the main island. But most of the forest was cut down as Singapore grew into a prosperous Brit­ish trading settlement. Trees were removed first to make way for crops such as nutmeg, cloves, and pepper, and gambier, a tropical plant used to make dye. Later, rub­ber and coconut plantations were established.

Large wild animals such as tigers, wild boar, mousedeer, and anteaters that used to roam Singapore's forests are no longer found. Small mammals include monkeys, squirrels, and civet cats. Birds and reptiles, in­cluding monitor lizards, pythons, and cobras, are also common.

Climate. Singapore is near the equator, and has a hot, moist climate. The average annual temperature is about 27° C However, sea breezes cool the country so day temperatures seldom rise above 31° C Rainfall aver­ages about 2,400 millimetres a year. The monsoons con­trol the seasons (see Monsoon). The wettest months are from November to March, when the northeast monsoon is blowing. The dry season is from June to October dur­ing the southeast monsoon. Thunderstorms are com­mon in the months between the monsoons.

Although rainfall is plentiful, Singapore is not able to supply enough water to meet all its demands. The coun­try buys water from the state of Johor in Malaysia to supplement stocks in its own reservoirs. Water supplies are tested daily.

Economy

Singapore has a highly developed economy. Before the 196Cfs, the country was essentially a trading nation. Since then, it has developed a more varied economy. It has become an important financial, trade, and transpor­tation centre. Tourism is also important. The country's annual income per capita (per person) is one of the highest in Asia. The people of Singapore enjoy a high standard of living and welfare services. There is one doctor for every 837 people, and one government hos­pital bed for every 269 people.

Singapore has few natural resources. Its main re­source is its people. Unemployment is low, about 2 per cent. About 28 per cent of employed people in Singa­pore work in manufacturing; about 23 per cent in com­merce; 22 per cent in community, social, and personal services; and 10 per cent in transport, storage, and com­munications.

Trade. Since Singapore was founded as a trading sta­tion in the 1800's, its economy has been based on trade.

It has a natural, deepwater harbour. It is situated in a strategic location on major trade routes between East and West. Singapore practises free trade. It is an entre­pot port, serving as a centre for the import and re­export of goods. It is also a warehousing and distribu­tion centre for the Asian and Pacific regions.

In terms of shipping tonnage, Singapore's port is the busiest in the world. Singapore's main trading partners are the European Union, Japan, Malaysia, and the United States. Singapore imports a wide range of goods, in­cluding electronic and electrical goods, foodstuffs, iron and steel, petroleum, plastics, and rubber. Singapore ex­ports, or re-exports, clothing, electronic components, petroleum products, rubber, and telecommunications equipment.

Manufacturing. Singapore is also a major manufac­turing centre. Its factories produce chemicals, clothing and textiles, electrical and electronic equipment, house­hold appliances, machinery, optical and scientific appa­ratus, and rubber and plastic products. It is also a major centre for food processing, petroleum refining, and shipbuilding and repairing.

Since the early 1960's, industrialization has proceeded rapidly. Singapore set up the Economic Development Board in 1961 to promote industry as the key to eco­nomic growth. The Jurong industrial estate was opened in the western part of the island. It and some 20 other in­dustrial estates are run by the Jurong Town Corporation, set up in 1968.

In the beginning, the industrial programme focused

on labour-intensive manufacturing to help solve unem­ployment problems in the early 1960's. After this pro­gramme succeeded, Singapore moved into higher-skill industries, and since the 1980's has concentrated on high-technology industries.

Agriculture has a minor role in Singapore's econ­omy. Most farming is intensive, and uses the latest tech­nology. Farmers produce poultry and eggs, and fruit and vegetables for the local market. Orchids are grown for export. Pig farming is being phased out because of the environmental damage caused by the waste from pig farms. Sea fish farming along the coastal waters of Singapore is increasing in importance. Aquarium fish are also produced for export.

Tourism is a major industry. About 5.5 million tour­ arrive in Singapore each year—more than the coun­try's population. Tourists come mainly from Japan, Aus­tralia, Southeast Asia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The Singapore Tourist Promotion Board was set up in 1964. The country has a wide range of ho­tels, with many major international hotel chains having branches there. Tourism is the country's third largest earner of foreign exchange.

Transportation and communication. Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), which began working in 1987, offers a fast and efficient local railway service. Two lines cross the city centre linking 42 stations. The system spans nearly 70 kilometres and can handle up to 800,000 passengers a day. Buses also provide valuable transport for city workers. A causeway linking Singapore Island to the nearby tourist island of Sentosa opened in Decem­ber 1992.

Singapore's roads are crowded because of the large number of cars. Drivers must pay a fee to enter the city during peak periods on weekdays. This system is called the area licensing scheme and has helped reduce traffic congestion at busy periods.

Singapore also has well developed transportation links with other countries. A railway links Singapore with Malaysia. Changi International Airport, at the east­ern end of the island, is the nation's chief airport and one of the most modern airports in the world. About 50 airlines provide flights to more than 100 cities in over 50 countries around the world. Seletar Airport, which like Changi Airport is managed by the Civil Aviation Author­ity of Singapore, is used for charter and training flights.

There is one television set for every five people. The country has one telephone for every two people. It is an important telecommunications centre.

People have lived on what is now Singapore island since prehistoric times. From about the A.D. 100's to the 1200's, the present-day city of Singapore was known as Temasek, or sea town. The name Singapore, which means lion city in Sanskrit, has been used for the island and the city since the 1200's. The name was probably given because of the many tigers, mistakenly called lions, that inhabited the island. During the 1200's and 1300's, Singapore harbour served as a trading centre.

A Chinese trader, Wang Da Yuan, wrote an account of his visit to the island in 1349. He found a settlement of Malays and Chinese on terraced hillsides protected by a defensive wall. The wall protected the people from pi­rates and also from attacks by Javanese from the king­dom of Majapahit, which sought to control Temasek.

Early trading peoples from Melaka and Johor, both in Malaysia, used Temasek as a base. The Orang Laut, or "sea people," were a fishing group who lived in house­boats near river mouths on the island. In the 1300's, Te­masek was destroyed by Majapahit forces (see Maja­pahit). Temasek then lost its importance as a trading centre and fell into obscurity.

In 1823, ancient ruins were recorded by the British of­ficial John Crawford. He described the ruins of buildings on Bukit Larangan (the Forbidden Hill), which was named Fort Canning Hill by the British. In 1928, gold or­naments dating from the 1300's or earlier were found. The so-called Singapore Stone, containing about 50 lines of undeciphered writing in the Kawi language, was

blown up in 1845 during building work, but a few frag­ments were saved. A piece is preserved in the National Museum of Singapore.

The arrival of Raffles. In 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles, an official of the British East India Company, arrived to set up a trading post. At this time, the Dutch controlled the trade routes with China and the East Indies. Raffles sought a base in the south of the Malay Peninsula, to at­tract trade and so break Dutch control.

Raffles and his assistant, Major William Farquhar, landed at Singapore on Jan. 29,1819. They met the local Malay chief, Temenggong Abdul Rahman. This chief told them that the island belonged to the sultan of Johor, Tengku Abdul Rahman, who was under the con­trol of the Dutch. Raffles decided to make another prince, the elder brother of Abdul Rahman, sultan in his place. This prince, Tengu Hussein, was the rightful heir to the throne. He travelled in secret to Singapore and was recognized as sultan of Johor by the British. A treaty was signed allowing the British to build a settlement on Singapore island.

Singapore was an instant success. It became a centre of free trade for the region. Traders from China, India, and Indonesia came to the new settlement. It became what Raffles had hoped for, the "emporium (market­place) of the East." Bugis traders from Celebes (Sulawesi, in Indonesia) collected goods such as spices, birds' nests, gold dust, elephants' tusks, rhinoceros' horns, and tin, and took them to Singapore once a year to barter (exchange) for manufactured goods. Chinese traders brought silk, tea, and porcelain from south China. Chi­nese traders also settled in Singapore.

The town plan. By 1821, the original small popula­tion of Malay, Chinese, and Orang Laut inhabitants had grown to 5,000. By 1824, the population had reached 11,000. Among the immigrants who settled in Singapore were Arabs, Armenians, Chinese, Europeans, Indians, and Malays. Chinese junks and large sailing ships from Europe began to call at Singapore. In the riverside set­tlement, the people lived in rough huts and houses, and there was much violence and disorder.

In 1822 Raffles returned for a third and last visit to Singapore. He drew up a town plan. Each community was given a kampong, or village section, of its own. There was a Chinese kampong, an Indian (Chulia) kampong, a Bugis kampong, a Malay kampong, and kampongs for all other communities. The European Town was close to the government area on the west bank of the river. The sultan had a palace in his own compound, with a mosque nearby. Each kampong had its own traditional trades. This historical division lives on in modern street names such as Bencoolen Street, Chulia Street, Carpen­ter Street, and Teochew Street.

Growth of trade. The old port on the Singapore River was soon too small for Singapore's booming trade. In the 1840's, the New Harbour, renamed Keppel Har­bour in 1900, was established along the west coast.

Trade continued to grow and the importance of the port of Singapore increased after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The canal shortened the sea voyage from London to Singapore from about 20,000 kilometres to about 12,000 kilometres. Steamships using the Suez

Canal could travel from London to Singapore in about 50 days. Singapore became the most important port in Southeast Asia for ships trading between Europe and Asia. New products such as tin and rubber from the Ma­layan mainland gave the port a further boost Facilities at the New Harbour included dry docks, a coaling station, and warehouses.

The growth in trade and population prompted the British East India Company to acquire all rights to Singa­pore. In 1824, the temenggong (ruler) and the sultan signed away their sovereignty over the island to the Brit­ish. Two years later, Singapore was united with Penang and Melaka to form the Presidency of the Straits Settle­ments. It was ruled from India. In 1867, Singapore be­came a British crown colony, ruled from London.

Piracy and crime. Singapore's trade attracted pirates from the Sulu archipelago and Mindanao, both in the Philippines. Some pirates even attacked ships in Singa­pore's port and then traded their loot openly in town. In 1832 and 1833, some Chinese merchants sent armed boats to patrol outside the harbour. In 1835, the British despatched two steamships to destroy the pirates. In the 1850's there were more attacks by pirates, this time from China.

Violence was also widespread in the town. The small police force could not deal with the problems of mur­der, theft, and Chinese secret societies. In the 1840s, a full-time police chief was appointed. By the late 1800's the police force had about 600 officers—still an inade­quate number. The chinese secret societies were a source of lawlessness and riots until they were made il­legal in 1890. However, they continued to be a menace until the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Partly to deal with the Chinese secret societies, the British established the Chinese Protectorate in Singa­pore in 1877. William Pickering, the first British official to speak several Chinese dialects, was appointed the first Protector. He was able to persuade Chinese secret soci­ety leaders to accept him as a mediator in their disputes.

Treatment of immigrants. Pickering also tackled the ill-treatment of free-passage immigrants by the "coo- lie-agents." Poor immigrants from China would register with a coolie-agent in China for a free passage to Singa­pore. The coolie-agent and the junk captain would pack as many immigrants as they could into the small ship. Thousands of immigrants died during the voyages be­cause of overcrowding, hunger, and thirst. The ill- treatment continued when the immigrants landed in Sin­gapore. They lived in overcrowded lodging houses and were kept as prisoners until they were "bought" by em­ployers. They had to work without pay for many months to pay off their passage, and were given only food and lodging. After the establishment of the Chinese Protec­torate, officials controlled the coolie-trade.

Immigration from India was done by the indenture system. Immigrants were recruited by an agent in India. They were required to sign a contract to work for the same employers for five years for a fixed wage. Often they were paid low wages and worked in poor condi­tions.

A fairer "kangany" system came into use from the 1870's. A senior worker in Singapore was given money by his employer to recruit labourers from his village in India. This system did away with the abuses of the in­denture system. Nevertheless, Indian nationalists com­plained that poor Indian villagers were never given a true picture of the hard work under harsh conditions that awaited them. The system declined during the slump in trade known as the Great Depression of 1929 to 1932, and was abolished in 1938. Indians continued to emigrate to Singapore. After World War II (1939-1945), Indian immigrants included merchants and professional people.

Malays did not migrate to Singapore in such large numbers as the Chinese or Indians. For this reason, they were soon outnumbered. The original Malay commu­nity was divided into followers of the temenggong and followers of the sultan. Each group was given a separate location. The Orang Laut people mixed with the Malay population. Immigrants in the 1800's came mainly from mainland Malaya, Sumatra, Java, the islands of Bawaen, Celebes, and Riau. Political unrest in the Malay Archipel­ago and the restrictive Dutch rule in Indonesia encour­aged Malays to migrate to Singapore.

Immigrants' contributions. The immigrants of the 1800's went to Singapore with the aim of seeking their fortune and then returning home. The British made no provisions for the growing Asian population. Local com­munity leaders set up religious buildings, schools, and hospitals. Narayana Pillay, a Hindu who had arrived with Raffles, established the first Sri Mariamman Temple in 1827. In 1844, a rich merchant, Tan Tock Seng, paid for the first pauper hospital to help the local people. Today it is a leading general hospital. Another merchant, Tan Kim Seng, gave funds to the government to bring fresh water to Chinatown. This was never done, so the money was used to construct a fountain bearing his name. The Melaka boat owner, Hajjah Fatimah, was the first woman to build a mosque. This Islamic place of worship, con­structed in the 1840's, bears her name and still stands today.

Educational development. Raffles encouraged the construction of the first school, The Institution, in 1823.

It was renamed Raffles Institution in 1868. Private philan­thropists and missionaries set up schools for the various ethnic groups. Toward the end of the 1800's, the govern­ment established British and Malay schools. Chinese schools continued to be built and supported by the Chi­nese communities until the 1900s, when they were of­fered government grants.

At first, few parents thought it was necessary to edu­cate their daughters. Nor was every boy sent to school. Poor parents kept their children at home to help them in their work. Later, wealthy people sent their children to British schools, so they could learn the English lan­guage. Chinese schools taught Chinese culture and tra­ditions, and therefore were the choice of China-born parents. Very few Malay or Tamil schools were built.

The education system in colonial Singapore sepa­rated the different groups in the Asian population. The

British-educated people had better jobs and enjoyed a higher status in society. The rest, particularly the large numbers of Chinese-educated people, ended up as la­bourers or poorly paid teachers. This division of society had an impact on the politics of modern Singapore.

Economic development. Singapore's economy grew rapidly in the 1800's. The big business houses were dominated by Europeans with connections in Eu­rope, China, and the Malay Archipelago. Among the well-known ones were the houses of Jardine and Guth­rie. The Asian firms were not as big, but they played an important role as middlemen, buying from the Europ­eans and distributing goods to tnaders from China and the Malay Archipelago. Tan Kim Seng and Company was a leading Chinese business in the 1800's. There were also Indian, Arab, and Malay merchants.

The close economic links with mainland Malaya formed the mainstay of Singapore's flourishing trade. British rule had brought law and order to Malaya. Be­tween 1874 and 1914, all the states in Malaya came under British rule.

The tin and rubber industries of Malaya gave Singa­pore's economy a great boost. Tin smelting became Sin­gapore's first industry. Tin ore was transported by rail and smelted at Pulau Brani, an island off Singapore. Tin ingots were exported from Singapore's port, and were one of Singapore's major exports. Another major export was sheet rubber. By the early 1900's, nearly 70 per cent of Malaya's foreign trade passed through Singapore.

By 1903, Singapore was the world's seventh largest port in tonnage of shipping. To modernize the port, the government took it over in 1905. Within the next ten years the Singapore Harbour Board had constructed two large docks, one of which was the second largest in the world. Entrepot trade, in which cargo was trans­ferred from one ship to another within the port, contin­ued to be Singapore's chief earner until the 1950's.

The 1920's and 1930's. As the economy continued to grow in the 1920's, an unprecedented number of immi­grants entered Singapore. Most were from south China. This immigration trend was reversed when trade slumped during the economic depression of the 1930's.

The government sent thousands of people back to India and south China, and reduced immigration numbers. Only women were allowed in without any restrictions. A unique group of single women came as labourers from Sam-Sui in Guangdong, south China. In their distinctive red headgear and navy blue samfoo (tunic and trousers) they could be seen on construction sites doing heavy manual labour. Other women worked as domestic serv­ants. Most Indian women moved to mainland Malaya to work in the rubber estates.

New leaders emerged. The entrepreneur, Tan Kah Kee, stood out among the philanthropists. He helped found schools in Singapore. Lim Boon Keng, a doctor, led a Confucianist movement in Singapore and encour­aged his fellow Chinese to learn and study their own language and culture. Mohammed Eunos, known as "the father of Malay journalism," used his pen to help politi­cize the Malays.

Most people still looked to their own homelands for political inspiration. In the 1930's, the Japanese invasion of China resulted in a boycott of Japanese goods in Sin­gapore and the raising of money for an aid fund. Many young Chinese returned to China to fight the Japanese.

World War II and the Japanese occupation (1942- 1945) had a great effect on the people of Singapore. The naval base, with its huge dry dock opened in 1938, was a symbol of British imperial power. But it was no defence against a land invasion. The British defenders of the is­land surrendered after 70 days. For Britain, the fall of Singapore was a catastrophe. The Japanese destroyed the myth of white superiority. In Singapore, they insti­tuted a reign of terror and executed people who had

helped the Allies against the Japanese. Life was hard for everyone in Singapore, especially the Chinese.

Post-war political changes in India and China also af­fected Singapore. India became independent in 1947 and China became Communist in 1949. These changes forced Singaporeans of Indian and Chinese origin to look upon Singapore as their permanent home.

Toward independence. In 1946, Singapore was sep­arated from Malaya and became a crown colony. The re­turn of the British after the war did not bring immediate improvement. Food shortages and soaring inflation added to people's misery. Communists who had fought against the Japanese became more strident in their demands for workers' rights. Strikes were common. Chinese-educated people saw themselves as disadvan­taged. Without speaking English, they could not join the civil service or the private sector. Higher education was not available to Chinese until Tan Lark Sye, a merchant, helped found a Chinese University. The Communists were very successful in recruiting students. Student sit- ins and boycotts of examinations, often involving clashes with the police, drew attention to their cause.

As the colonial government moved towards the intro­duction of democracy, political parties were formed.

The British-educated people formed their own parties and sought to keep things as they were. They ignored the views of the Chinese-educated majority. The Chi­nese party fought for issues such as Chinese education and citizenship for those born in China.

Only one party in Singapore sought to bring the Chi­nese-educated people into mainstream politics. This was the People's Action Party (PAP). It was led by Lee Kuan Yew, a lawyer, who joined the Communists to fight colonialism (see Lee Kuan Yew). In 1954, he was a founder of the People's Action Party (PAP). Singapore set up its first legislative assembly in 1955.

All political parties worked for independence within a union with Malaya. Malaya became independent in 1957. In 1959, Singapore became independent, with Lee Kuan Yew as prime minister. The United Kingdom retained control of defence and foreign affairs. Its economy de­pended on entrepot trade with Malaya, and few people believed Singapore could exist alone.

Malaya viewed Singapore's left-wing PAP with suspicion. Eventually, there was a break between Lee Kuan Y"ew and his Communist partners in the PAP, and the Communists grew in strength. This prompted Malaya's prime minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, to announce the formation of Malaysia, a federation of Malaya, Singa­pore, Sabah, and Sarawak.

Federation. Malaysia came into being on Sept 16, 1963. However, the union was not a happy one. The ex­pected economic benefits did not materialize. Singa­pore's efforts to industrialize to solve its unemployment problems were hampered by the federal government's tight control. Relations worsened as Singapore's leaders tried to break into the Malayan political arena, the pre­serve of Malays. Racial riots broke out in Singapore in 1964. When relations did not improve, the Malaysian prime minister asked Singapore to leave the federation. On Aug. 9, 1965, Singapore became independent.

Independence. When the first Singapore parliament met in December 1965, the opposition benches were empty. They had boycotted the opening, claiming that the independence was "spurious." Opposition members resigned their seats, and two fled Singapore to avoid ar­rest. There was no opposition in Singapore until 1981, when one opposition member was elected.

The new government of Singapore drew up ambi­tious plans for the survival of the new nation. Education was encouraged to forge a common national identity from Singapore's mixture of peoples. The school curric­ulum was geared to meet the needs of new manufactur­ing industries. National service was begun, and a new housing programme set up.

From the 1960's, industry began to replace the tradi­tional entrepot trade as Singapore's chief income- earner. Health and social services were improved. In 1971 the last UK military forces were withdrawn from Singapore. Singapore's economy continued to grow. By the 1980's, it had become one of the most stable and prosperous nations in Asia.

In 1990, Lee Kuan Yew retired as prime minister. He was succeeded by Ihe deputy prime minister Goh Chok Tong. Lee remained head of the People's Action Party and became a senior minister in Coh's Cabinet.

In 1993, Ong Teng Cheong became the first directly elected president of Singapore. He had previously held 'office as deputy prime minister.

Questions

Why is Singapore important for world trade?

Where did the ancestors of today's Singaporeans come from? What is a shophouse?

How did Singapore get its name?

Who were the Orang Laut?

Why did Raffles choose Singapore as a trading post?

Which army invaded Singapore during World War II?

In what year did Singapore become independent from the Fed­eration of Malaysia?

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